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LEFT SCOTLAND 296 SCOTLAND tion of the principal rivers; in the N. part it is chiefly toward the E., in the S. more equally E. and W. Rivers and Lakes. — The chief rivers flow (roughly speaking) to the E., and enter the German ocean, the largest be- ing the Tweed, Forth, Tay, South Esk, North Esk, Dee, Don, Deveron, Spey, and Findhorn; those entering the sea on the W. are the Clyde, Ayr, Doon, Dee, Nith, Annan, and Esk. The Tay carries to the sea a larger quantity of water than any river in Great Britain, but neither it nor most of the others, except when they form estuaries, are of much use for navi- gation. The Clyde, however, in its lower course carries a vast traffic, this being rendered possible chiefly by dredging. Many of the rivers are valuable from the numbers of salmon they produce. A striking feature of the country is the great multitude of lakes, varying in size from Loch Lomond (28 square miles) to the pool-like mountain tarns. In the Northern Highlands almost every glen has its lake and every mountain hollow is filled by a stream or spring. Among the more noted are Lochs Lomond, Ka- trine, Tay, Earn, Rannoch, Awe, Shiel, Laggan, Lochy, Ness, Maree, Shin, in the Western and Northern Highlands; and St. Mary's Loch, Lochs Ken, Dee, and Doon in the Southern Uplands. Geology. — As regards geology the older or palaeozoic rocks predominate almost everywhere in Scotland. The Highlands are composed almost entirely of crystal- line schists, gneiss, and quartzites; the Central Lowlands of odd red standstone, carboniferous, and Permian strata; the Southern Uplands mostly of rocks of Si- lurian age. In certain localities remains of secondary formations are represented over small spaces, while volcanic rocks cover considerable areas. Granite exists in great masses in many localities, and in some parts is extensively quarried. The most valuable mineral region is the Central Lowlands, where coal and iron exist in such quantity as to make this one of the most important mineral fields of Great Britain. For agriculture, manufactures and commerce, see Great Britain. Political Constitution. — The Parliament of Scotland anciently comprised all who held any portion of land, however small, from the crown by tenure of military service, till the reign of James VI., when the small barons or freeholders were ex- cused from attendance in person, "two or more wise men" being deputed from each county in proportion to its size. Its powers were nominally extensive, but the supreme power was virtually in the king, who by his influence often entirely con- trolled its proceedings. The Parliament in the whole consisted of three estates — ■ the nobility, the dignified clergy (consist- ing of bishops, abbots, and priors), and the lesser barons, or representatives of shires and burgs. When PresbyteriaN- ISM (q. v.) was formally ratified by law after the revolution of 1688, the ecclesi- astical estate ceased to have a place in Parliament. Every measure brought be- fore Parliament was previously prepared by a committee, styled the lords of the articles, chosen from each of the three or- ders, but in effect little better than royal nominees. Before the Union there were four great officers of state — the lord high- chancellor, the high-treasurer, the lord privy-seal, and the secretary; and there were also four lesser officers — the lord clerk-register, the lord-advocate, the treasurer-depute, and the justice clerk. Previously to the era of the Revolution the privy council of Scotland assumed inquisitorial powers, and even torture was administered under the sanction of its authority; but it is now entirely merged in the privy council of Great Britain. The number of peers in the Scotch Parliament was formerly 160, and of commons 155, and all sat in one house and voted promiscuously. At the union of the kingdoms the political system of Scotland was almost entirely incorpo- rated with that of England. (See Great Britain, Government.) The Court of Sessions is the supreme civil court of Scotland. The Court of Justiciary, or criminal court, composed only of judges of the Court of Session, is supreme in the highest sense, since its decisions in criminal cases are not sub- ject to any review. The principal sub- ordinate judicatories are sheriff courts, established in each county or stewartry. Sheriff-substitutes, or judges ordinary, one or more holding separate courts in different districts, decide in the first in- stance, subject to the review of the prin- cipal sheriff or sheriff depute, whose de- cisions, though final within the limits of his jurisdiction, are reviewable by the Court of Session, with the exception of classes of cases provided for by special statutes. Besides the sheriff court, each county or district of a county has its jus- tice of peace courts, in which judges, not stipendiary, decide on principles of equity in minor crimes; and in every town of any importance are bailie, dean of guild, and police courts, with limited jurisdic- tions. Education. — Scotland has had the ad- vantage of a national system of elemen- tary education for over two centuries, a school having been established in every parish by a law of 1697, according to a system proposed by John Knox long be- fore. This scheme did effective service