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LEFT PRUSSIA 368 PRUSSIA Silesia, and the Pregel and Niemen to a considerable distance inland. Lakes are exceedingly numerous, particularly in .' East Prussia and Pomerania. There bays, or rather lagoons, communicating with the sea by narrow mouths, and pos- sessing more of the character of fresh- water lakes than of arms of the sea. They are denominated haffs. The cli- mate of Prussia is not less varied than the soil. Along the Baltic it is moist, and in East Prussia, especially, the winter is long and severe. It is also harsh in the S. part of Silesia, Branden- burg, and in the Saxon and Rhenish provinces it is comparatively mild. The quality of the soil is various. In Bran- denburg and Pomerania it is generally poor; in many parts, indeed, it consists of tracts of loose barren sand, diversified with extensive heaths and moors; but, in other parts, particularly along the rivers and lakes, there is a good deal of meadow, marsh, and other comparatively rich land. In Ducal Prussia and Prus- sian Poland, including the province of Posen, the soil consists generally of black earth and sand, and is, in many parts, very superior; but Silesia, and the Saxon and Rhenish provinces, are naturally, perhaps, the most productive. The plain of Magdeburg, on the left bank of the Elbe, is also very fertile. Agriculture ayid Stock Raising. — Large estates are generally managed by stewards and the occupants of smaller properties are, in most cases, the owners. Rye, wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, beet root, flax, hops, tobacco and hemp form the chief products. Chicory is also largely cultivated. The extensive beet root plantations give rise to one of the most important industries. Madder and other plants used in dyeing are also raised. Fruits and vegetables are most extensively grown in the W. provinces, which are also famous for their wines. Horses, cattle and sheep are extensively raised, wool being an important product. Large numbers of fine horses are ex- ported from East Prussia. Mining. — The mineral products are abundant, coal being the most important. The production of lignite is large. Cop- per, iron and lead are extensively worked. Prussia yields about one-half of the v/orld's annual production of zinc. Manufacturing. — Though more of an agricultural than a manufacturing coun- try, Prussia has greatly distinguished herself, particularly of recent years, in various branches of manufacture. The Rhenish provinces, and Saxony and Sile- sia, are the districts most prominent in this industry. Linens and coarse wool- ens for domestic consumption are made in every village, and, indeed, in most cottages throughout the kingdom. Large quantities of silk and cotton goods, and linen, are produced in Elber- feld, and other tovsms of the Rhine prov- inces. Very superior broadcloth is largely manufactured at Berlin and Aix- la-Chapelle. Prussia occupies an ad- vanced rank as a producer of the useful metals. The articles of hardware made at Berlin, Iserlohn, Hagen, Solingen, Olpe, and Essen enjoy a high reputation, the last-named place being the seat of the famous Krupp steel and gun works. Porcelain, jewelry, watches, and car- riages are also manufactured in the latter city on a most extensive scale. Paper, leather, soap, oil and cigars are important manufactures; and beer and spirits are very extensively produced. Commerce. — Commerce is facilitated by the long coast line, and by an elabo- rate system of railways and canals. In 1919, the number of miles open for traf- fic was about 25,000. The Kiel Canal is of especial service and value in devel- opment of agriculture and of commerce, both foreign and domestic. There are chambers and corporations of commerce in all of the larger towns of the kingdom. There are no separate statistics for the trade of Prussia; they are included un- der those of the German empire. Education. — Throughout the kingdom, education is general and compulsory for the elementary grades. The school age is from 6 to 14 years. In 1919 the in- stitutions for secondary education were as follows: Universities, 11; classical and scientific high schools (gymnasia and realschulen), over 1,300; public normal schools, 204. Religion. — Absolute religious liberty is guaranteed by the constitution. Nearly two-thirds of the population are Protes- tants and most of the remainder Roman Catholic. The State Church is Evangel- ical or Protestant, and since 1817 has consisted of a fusion of the Lutheran and Calvinistic bodies. The relations of the Roman Catholic Church to the gov- ernment difl'er in the various provinces. Government and Finances. — Previous to the World War the constitution vested the executive and part of the legislative authority in a king. The crown was hereditary in the male line, according to primogeniture. The king was advised by a council of ministers appointed by royal decree. The representative assem- bly, the Landtag, was composed of two chambers, the House of Lords (Herren- haus) and the Chamber of Deputies (Abgeordnetenhaus). The assent of the king and both chambers was requisite for all lav/s. The executive government was carried on by a Ministry of State ap-
 * are also along the coast several large