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LEFT NETHERLANDS 417 NETHERLANDS Elementary schools are everywhere established, and are partly supported by the State, but education is not compul- sory. Higher class schools are in all the chief towns; while there are State universities, namely, at Leyden, Utrecht, and Groningen, and the municipal uni- versity at Amsterdam. The commercial capital of the country is Amsterdam, but the seat of government and resi- dence of the sovereign is The Hague. History. — The S. portion of the Low Countries belonged at the beginning of the Christian era to Belgic Gaul (see Gaul). The N. portion, inhabited by the Batavians and Frisians, formed part of Germany. The S. portion as far as the Rhine was held by Rome up to A. D. 400, after which it came under the rule of the Franks, as did also subse- quently the rest of the country. In the 11th century the territory comprised in the present kingdoms of Belgium and the Netherlands formed a number of counties, marquisates, and duchies corresponding more or less with the modern provinces. By the latter part of the 15th century all these had been acquired by the Duke of Burgundy, and passed to the house of Hapsburg on the marriage of the daughter of Charles the Bold of Burgundy to the son of the Emperor Frederick III. On the ab- dication of Charles V. in 1556 they passed to his son Philip II. of Spain. In consequence of religious persecution in 1576 Holland and Zeeland openly re- belled, and in 1579 the five N. prov- inces — Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guel- ders, and Friesland — concluded the cel- ebrated Union of Utrecht by which they declared themselves independent of Spain. They were joined in 1580 by Overijssel, and in 1594 by Groningen. After the assassination of William of Orange, July 10, 1584, Maurice became stadtholder (governor). His victories at Nieuport and in Brabant, the bold and victorious exploits of the Dutch ad- mirals against the navy of Philip II., the wars of France and England against Spain, and the apathy of Philip II., caused in 1609 the peace of Antwerp. But Holland had yet to go through the Thirty Years' War before its independ- ence, now recognized by all the powers except Spain, was fully secured by the peace of Westphalia. In the middle of the 17th century the United Nether- lands were the first commercial state and the first maritime power in the world, and for a long time maintained the dominion of the sea. The S. prov- inces alternated between the rule of Spain and Austria till 1797, when they came under the power of the French republic. In 1806 Louis Napoleon be- came king of Holland, but in 1810 it was incorporated with the French em- pire. In 1814 all the provinces both of Holland and Belgium were united by the treaty of Paris to form the kingdom of the Netherlands. This arrangement lasted till 1830, when the S. provinces broke away and formed the kingdom of Belgium. King Willem I. attempted to reduce the revolted provinces by force; but the gi'eat powers intervened, and finally matters were adjusted between the two countries in 1839. The king ab- dicated in 1840, and was succeeded by his son Willem II. (1840-1849), he be- ing again succeeded by his son Willem III., who was succeeded in 1890 by his daughter Wilhelmina, Queen Emma reigning as queen-regent till the queen came of age, Aug. 31, 1898. Queen Wil- helmina was married to Duke Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Feb. 7, 1901. Probably no neutral country played a more difficult role in the World War than did the Netherlands. Dur- ing the first weeks of the German invasion of Belgium thousands of Bel- gian refugees went across the border and it was necessary to give them hos- pitality throughout the period of the war. The number steadily increased as Belgians found an opportunity to cross the border. At the outbreak of the war the boundary of the Netherlands was mobilized and throughout the entire period of the hostilities the army was in a constant state of preparation. Although sorely pressed by both sides by economic and other measures, Hol- land never seriously contemplated aban- doning her neutrality. Dutch ships played a large part in the carrying trade during the war, especially be- tween America and Europe. On March 14, 1918, the United States and British governments notified the Dutch govern- ment that they proposed to take over all the Dutch ships in their ports, com- pensation to be made and the ships to be returned after the war. Holland had already delayed for many months in ac- cepting various proposals made by the two governments and during this period hundreds of Dutch ships remained idle in American and British ports. Holland was prepared to make an agi'eement, but Germany threatened the destruc- tion of every Dutch ship if the agree- ment was made. The seizure of the ships was made without trouble. Dutch crews were replaced by American and British. Although some public protest was made in Holland, there were no serious complications. On the day following the armistice