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LEFT MAHLER 83 MAHONY half belonging to the state of Edar or previous conquests. In 1743 renewed Idar) ; the British government assumed hostilities broke out between Persia and the management of these states in 1820. Turkey, in which the latter power was Pop. about 450,000. the sufferer. Mahmud died in 1754. MAHLER, GUSTAV, a German musi- cal composer; born in Bohemia 1860 and died in Vienna 1911. From 1884 to 1900 he conducted orchestras in various cities of the Continent, Prague, Leipzig, and Budapest. In 1897 he became director of the Court opera at Vienna and re- tained this position until 1907. During the season 1907-1908 he conducted Ger- man operas at the Metropolitan Opera House, New York, and in 1909 he re- organized the New York Philharmonic Orchestra and made it one of the best in America. He achieved more success as a conductor than as a composer, and is ranked as one of the greatest masters of his profession. MAHMUD (ma-mod'). Sultan of Ghaz- ni, the founder of the Mohammedan empire of India ; born in Ghazni, Afghan, istan, about 970. His father, Sabak- tagin, governor of Ghazni, owned a nominal allegiance to Persia, but was really independent. On his death Mah- mud put aside his elder brother; formed an alliance against the Persian monarch, overthrew his kingdom and laid the foun- dation of an extensive empire in central Asia (999). He then turned his at- tention to India, and in a series of 12 invasions secured a gi'eat amount of treasure and vastly extended his power. He was a patron of literature, and brought many men of learning about his court, among whom was the poet Firdusi. He established large educational insti- tutions at Ghazni, and spent vast sums on public works. He died in Ghazni in 1030. MAHMUD, or MOHAMMED I., Sul- tan of Turkey, son of Mustapha II. ; born in Constantinople in 1696. After the deposition of his uncle, Achmet II., in 1730, he was raised, by the aid of the janissaries, to the vacant throne, on the condition that he should continue the war begun against the ruler of Persia, Nadir Shah. After a disastrous campaign a peace was concluded in 1736. Meanwhile, in 1734, the Russians had commenced hostilities^ against the Ottoman empire and obtained several successes; their Austrian allies at the same time invad- ing the Turkish province of Wallachia. The latter, however, being badly de- feated by the Moslems at Krotska, on the Danube, in 1739, were forced to make peace and also surrender Belgrade. The Russians also effected a treaty, but one more advantageous, they retaining their MAHMUD II., Sultan of Turkey; born July 20, 1785. He succeeded his brother Mustapha IV. in 1808, and short- ly afterward, during an insurrection among the janissaries, caused the former monarch and his infant to be put to death. The janissaries, however, getting the upper hand, obliged Mahmud to sub- mit to their demands. He continued to carry on the war with Russia and Serbia till 1812, when a treaty of peace was ef- fected, by which the Pruth was made the boundary of the two empires. This able ruler next successively crushed the Ara- bian Wahabees, and the revolt of Ali Pasha in 1822. A rebellion of his Greek subjects, in 1821, was put down with such relentless severity that Great Britain, France, and Russia found it their duty to interfere, when, mediation proving unavailing, their united squad- rons annihilated the Turkish fleet at Navarino in 1827. In 1832 Mahmud, en- deavoring to drive the rebellious Mehe- MET Ali (q. V.) out of Syria, was de- feated by Ibrahim Pasha, son of the lat- ter. In 1839 a second attempt to reduce his formidable vassal again subjected the Turkish arms to defeat by Ibrahim. He died July 1, 1839. MAHOGANY (from mahogoni, its Central American name), the timber of Swietenia mahogoni. It is close-grained and hard, susceptible of a fine polish, and is largely used for the manufacture of household furniture. It is fragrant and aromatic, and is considered febri- fugal. Mahogany is said to have been first brought to England by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1595, but not to have come into general use till about 1720. MAHOGANY TREE, Swietenia ma- hogoni, one of the Cedrelacese. It is a lofty, branching tree, with a large, hand- some head, flowers like those of Melia, and fruits about the size of a turkey's egg. It grows in the warmest parts of Central America, in Cuba, Jamaica, His- paniola, and the Bahamas, MAHOMET. See MOHAMMED. MAHONY, FRANCIS (ma-ho'ni), known as Father Peout, an Irish Jour- nalist and poet; born in Cork, Ireland, in 1804. He was educated at a Jesuit seminary at Amiens, studied theology at Paris, received clerical ordination, and officiated for a short time at the chapel of the Bavarian Legation, London. About 1834 he began the contribution of an