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LEFT JAPAN 285 JAPAN the climate of the S. E. coast; thus, while snow seldom lies more than five inches deep at Tokyo, in the upper valleys of Kaga, near the W. coast, 18 and 20 feet are common. The E. coast of Yezo is visited by a cold current from the Ku- riles, which renders the climate foggry in summer and retards cultivation. The rainfall, which varies much in different years, is on an average 62 inches. No month passes without rain; but it is most plentiful in summer. Mineralogy. — The mineral resources of Japan are considerable. Gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, antimony, tin, sulphur, coal, basalt, felspar, greenstones, gran- ites (red and gray), rock crystal, agate, carnelian, amber, scoriae and pumice stone, talc, alum, etc., are found in greater or less quantities. Coalbeds ex- tend from Nagasaki to Yezo, near Sap- poro, in Yezo. Production and Industry. — About three-fifths of the land is cultivated by peasant proprietors, and the remaining portion by tenants. In 1919 about 30,- 000,000 acres were owned by private per- sons, of which about 10,000,000 were un- der cultivation. The leading agricul- tural crops are rice, wheat, barley, rye, tobacco, and tea. The production of rice in 1918 was 34,187,000 quarters; of wheat, 4,053,420 quarters; of barley, about 5,000,000 quarters; of rye, about 6,000,000 quarters; of tobacco, about 850,000 quarters; and of tea, about 765,- 000 hundredweight. The total number of horses was about 1,300,000, and of cattle about 1,600,000. The chief miner- al products in 1918, with their values, were as follows: gold, 10,240,591 yen; copper, 90,390,232 yen; steel, 113,619,- 943 yen; pig iron, 38,091,576 yen. Other products of importance are coal, 286,- 032,425 yen; petroleum, 30,479,097 yen; sulphur, antimony, and iron pyrites. There were about 250,000 men employed in collieries, and about 170,000 in metal mines. Government and Administration. — The government is a hereditary monar- chy, the succession being now exclusively in the male line. The cabinet consists of 9 ministers of state, presided over by a minister president, their departments being Foreign Affairs, Home Af- fairs, Interior, Finance, War, Navy, Jus- tice, Education, Agriculture and Com- merce, Communications (post and tele- graph, etc.). There is also a privy- council, mostly composed of former min- isters of state. The constitution, laid out on German lines, is jealously careful of the supremacy of the throne. The imperial diet consists of two Houses, and its approval is necessary for the passing of every law, debates being held in pub- lic. The first general election took place in 1890; provincial assemblies were in- stituted in 1879. For administrative purposes Japan is divided into ken or prefectures and fu or city governments. Raihvays. — The railway system began with two lines, one from Tokyo to Yoko- hama, and the other from Hyogo to Osaka and Kyoto. In 1877 a great im- petus was given to railway construction by the formation of private companies. There were in 1919 5,999 miles of state railway, 1,835 miles of railway owned by private companies, or a total of 7,834 miles. In 1920 the construction of five railway lines in Manchuria and Mongolia was begun. Education. — Elementary education is compulsory. There are about 7,500,000 pupils in the elementary schools, and about 165,000 teachers. In special tech- nical schools there are about 400,000 pupils, with about 6,000 teachers. The total number of children of school age is about 10,000,000. There are four uni- versities, Tokio Imperial University, Kyoto Imperial University, Tohuku Im- perial University, and Kyushu Imperial University. In these universities there are about 10,000 students, with about 900 instructors. Beginning in 1919-20, the government devoted 44,000,000 yen to extend higher education. There is a special education system in Formosa. Army and Navy. — See Army; Navy. Finance. — The estimated revenue for the year ending March 30, 1920, was 1,064,190,340 yen. The' chief revenues are derived from taxes, from state prop- erty, post and telegraphs, and from monopolies. The chief expenditures are for administration, education, and com- munication. The public debt on March 31, 1919, was 2,579,946,478 yen. Religions. — There are two prevailing religions in Japan — Shinto or Kami no MicJii ("The way of the gods"), the in- digenous faith; and Buddhism, intro- duced from China in 552. (1) Shinto- ism: The characteristics of Shintoism in its pure form are "the absence of an ethical and doctrinal code, of idol wor- ship, of priestcraft, and of any teachings concerning a future state, and the deifi- cation of heroes, emperors, and great men, together with the worship of cer- tain forces and objects in nature." The principal divinity is the sun goddess Amaterasu, from whom the Mikado is held to be descended. . (2) Buddhism: Of Buddhists there are no fewer than 35 sects. The monks have assumed the functions of priests, and Japanese Bud- dhist worship presents striking resem- blances to that of the Roman Catholic