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LEFT INTERNATIONAL LAW 176 INTERNATIONAL LAW far enough. The historical American policy has always favored the complete exemption from capture of private prop- erty on the sea, whether belonging to neutral or enemy subjects, always with the exception of contraband of war. Thus the immunity granted by the Dec- laration of Paris to enemy property only when under a neutral flag was not ac- ceptable. The doctrine that all private property except contraband is immune from capture at sea is the doctrine, much talked of and little understood, of "The Freedom of the Seas." II. The Geneva Conference of 186J!f. This was a conference assembled to formulate rules for ameliorating the con- dition of the sick and wounded in time of war. It agreed upon a series of rules which, with some extensions grow- ing out of later conferences, have been accepted by all civilized nations. Out of this conference came the "Red Cross" organization with its widely varied ac- tivities covering practically the whole world and with its sigri, a red cross on a white ground, which is supposed to protect hospitals, ambulances, etc., with their operating staffs. The viola- tions of the Red Cross flag are among the most barbarous of the acts of Ger- many during the World War. ///. The First Hague Conference, 1899. This Conference called upon the initia- tive of the Czar of Russia for the con- sideration of certain large questions of International Law and relations adopted three conventions, dealing with: (1) The creation of an International Court of Arbitration for the settlement of international disputes without re- course to war. (2) Revision and improvement of the Laws of War on Land. (3) The adaptation of the rules of the Geneva Convention to warfare on the IV. The Second Hague Conference, 1907^. This Conference revised, extended and confirmed the work of the First Hague Conference and took up a large number of new questions among the most im- portant of which were: (1) The rights and duties of neutral states in time of war. (2) The use of submarine contact- mines. (3) The bombardment of undefended places by Naval forces. (4) The establishment of an Interna- tional Court of Appeal for Prize cases. New principles and practices in Inter- national Law are frequently established, either temporarily or permanently, by the acts or declarations of a single gov- ernment. It is interesting to note that the United States has in a number of important instances assumed leadership of this character, and always along lines of enlightened liberality and unselfish- ness. The following are among the most notable cases of this kind: The proclamation of neutrality as between Great Britain and France issued by Washington in 1793 con- stituted a new epoch in the usages of nations and has since been adopted as a model by all other gov- ernments. The Monroe Doctrine of 1820 has protected the weak repub- lics of this continent against the monarchial governments of Europe for a hundred years. The "Laws of Land Warfare," issued by the United States Govern- ment in 1863 for the government of its armies in the field represented an immense advance upon previous rules and have been copied by all other military powers and followed by all except Germany. Secretary Hay's policy of the "Open Door" for China has been generally accepted, though not always followed, as establishing: the attitude of the world toward the troublesome "Far Eastern Ques- tion." As has been already explained, the United States has always occu- pied advanced ground on the "Free- dom of the Seas." The developments of the World War have modified the conditions of warfare in many directions and introduced many new factors, some of them of great sig- nificance. Both submarine and aerial warfare have taken on a character never before anticipated, or anticipated only as possible developments of the rndefinite future. Contact submarine mines, here- tofore limited in their application to shoal waters bordering a coast line, have been planted by thousands in the open sea, in depths up to hundreds of feet. The dropping of bombs from airships on crowded and undefended cities, contrary to all existing laws of warfare, has been common. The use of asphyxiating gases not only in shells projected from guns but in great waves sent down upon an enemy's trenches and battle lines before a favoring breeze, has been, perhaps, the most appalling feature of all. But the tendency of all has been in the same direction, — away from every feature that in past wars has tended to soften in