Page:Collier's New Encyclopedia v. 04.djvu/329

LEFT GEMABA 277 GENEBAL Academy of Sciences, Paris, a process for the production of a number of gems of the corundum class, as rubies, sap- phires, etc. The process essentially con- sisted in exposing the fluoride of alu- minium, together with a little charcoal and boracic acid, in a plumbago crucible protected from the action of the air, to a white heat for about an hour. Many ex- periments with a view to producing dia- monds artificially have also been made. In art and archaeology the term gem is usually applied to a precious stone cut or engraved in ornamental designs, or with inscriptions. Stones on which the design is raised above the general sur- face are called cameos; those having the design sunk below the surface are called mtaglios. Early specimens of cut gems are seen in the scarabaei or beetle-shaped signets worn in rings by the ancient Egyptians. Among the Greeks, Etrus- cans, and Romans gem sculpture held a high place, reaching its highest point under Augustus. Modern gem engraving dates from the beginning of the 15th century, the chief seats of the art being Italy and Germany. Rome is now the headquarters of the seal-engraving art. The stones used for cameo cutting often exhibit layers of different colors, so that the raised design has a tint distinct from the ground. Intaglios are very often executed in transparent stones, and the subjects treated in this manner are more limited in number. They are chiefly such as seals, devices, coats of arms, etc. See Diamond. GEMARA (ge-ma'ra), that portion of the two Talmuds which contains the an- notations, discussions, and amplifications of the Mishnah by the academies of Pal- estine on the one hand, and those of Babylon on the other. The Babylonian Gemara, more complete as well as more lucid than the Palestinian, possesses a much more highly valued authority. The final redaction of this latter falls in the middle of the 4th century A. p., while the former was not completed till 500 A. D. See Talmud. GEMINI, the third of the zodiacal constellations. The name is given from two conspicuous stars, Alpha and Beta Geminorum, the former named, after the example of the Greeks, Castor; the latter, Pollux. If an imaginary line be drawn through the belt of Orion and two bright stars in the line of the belt, it will nearly pass through Gemini. If again Regulus and Aldebaran be above the horizon, and the space between them be equally divided, the point of bisection will be in Gemini. Castor is a remark- able binary star of the first magnitude, Pollux is of the second. The sun enters the third sign of the zodiac which is different from the actual constellation about May 21, and passes from it to Cancer about June 21. GENAPPE (zhe-nap'), a town of Belgium in the province of South Bra- bant, 15 miles from Brussels. Many battles have been fought here at different times. It is, however, chiefly memorable as the site of the first of that series of battles which, in June, 1815, was ter- minated on the field of Waterloo. GENAZZANO (ja-nat-sa'no), a small town, 27 miles E. of Rome, containing an old castle of the Colonna family, and the far-famed pilgrimage-chapel of the Madonna del Buon Consiglio (the Ma- donna of Good Counsel). Pop. 42,000. GENEALOGY, the systematical in- vestigation and exhibition of the origin, descent, and relations of families (or their "pedigree"). Persons descended from a common father constitute a fam- ily. Under the idea of "degree" of re- lationship is denoted the nearness or re- moteness of relationship in which one person stands with respect to another. A series of several persons, descended from a common progenitor, is called a "line." A line is either "direct" or "col- lateral." The collateral lines compre- hend the several lines which unite in a common progenitor. For illustrating descent and relationship genealogical tables are constructed, the order of which depends on the end in view. The common form of genealogical tables places the common stock at the head, and shows the degree of each descendant by lines. Some tables, however, have been constructed in the form of a tree, in which the progenitor (German, Stamm- vater, "trunk-father") is placed beneath as if for a root. GENERAL, the title of a military office of varying importance in different countries. In the United States this office was created by Congress for Gen- eral Grant and that of lieutenant-gen- eral for General Sherman. After the death of General Grant the office was conferred on General Sherman and Gen- eral Sheridan was promoted to lieuten- ant-general, and on the death of General Sherman the office was revived for General Sheridan, and in 1917 for John Joseph Pershing. That of lieutenant- general was revived in 1895 for Maj.- Gen. John M. Schofield, and again in 1901, when Maj.-Gen. Nelson A. Miles was appointed its incumbent. When the office of lieutenant-general has expired by law the senior major-general becomes the commanding officer of the army, under direction of the President. There