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LEFT CiESAR 277 C^iSAA which the senate added — to prevent the popular assembly from doing so — the province of Gallia Transalpina. In 58 B. C. Caesar repaired to his prov- inces, and during the next nine years conducted those splendid campaigns in Gaul by which he completed the subju- gation of the West under the dominion of Rome. In his first campaign he de- feated the Helvetii, and also Ariovistus, who with a large number of Germans had settled W. of the Rhine. In 57 B. C. Caesar broke up the Belgic confederacy and subdued the various tribes compos- ing it, the greatest struggle being with the Nervii. During the winter and the spring following Caesar stayed at Lucca, where he had a memorable meeting with Pompey and Crassus, and for three years following agreed upon a common policy. It was decided that Pompey and Crassus should be consuls for the year 55 B. c, while the government of Caesar in Gaul was to be prolonged for a sec- ond term of five years till 49 B. c. In the year 56 B. c. followed the subjuga- tion of the Veneti and other peoples of Brittany and Normandy, and the con- quest of Gaul might be considered com- plete. He now undertook a fourth cam- paign against two German tribes who were about to enter Gaul. He was again successful. In the autumn of the same year (55 b. C.) he invaded Britain; but after a brief stay in the island, re- turned to Gaul. In 54 B. c. Caesar opened his fifth campaig-n by a second invasion of Britain, in which he crossed the Thames, and enforced at least the nominal submission of the British tribes in the S. E. of the island. On his re- turn to Gaul, Cassar was compelled — on account of the scarcity of corn — to dis- perse his forces for winter quarters, and this encouraged some of the Gallic tribes to revolt. It led to the first seri- ous reverse which Caesar sustained in Gaul; a division of 15 cohorts was en- tirely destroyed by the Eburones. But he was speedily master of the insurrec- tion, and exacted a terrible vengeance on its authors. Caesar now returned to northern Italy, that he might be able to communicate more easily and securely with his friends at Rome. That citv was gradu- ally becoming more anarchic, the evils of weak government more apparent: the hour for decisive action seemed to be approaching, when there broke out a general rebellion of the Gauls, headed by a young warrior of the Arverni named Vercingetorix. It was in the dead of winter when the news came to Caesar. Without delay he crossed the Cevennes mountains, though they were covered with snow to the depth of six feet. The struggle with Vercingetorix was a severe one; at Gergovia, the capi- tal of the Arverni, Caesar was defeated, and for a time his affairs seemed in a desperate condition. But he managed to unite his forces, and at the siege of Alesia (52 B. C.) crushed the whole hosts of the Gauls. Vercingetorix sur- rendered himself, and the independence of Gaul was at on end. Only some iso- lated tribes continued to resist; and next year (51 B. c.) Caesar proceeded to quell them. This he successfully ac- complished and in addition reduced the whole of Aquitania. In the meantime Pompey had defi- nitely gone over to the senatorial party. Crassus had fallen in Asia in 52 B. c, and thus Caesar and Pompey were left alone, the two most powerful men of Rome. Pompey was jealous of his younger rival. His natural tendency was to adhere to the old aristocratic party. He now cast In his lot with it, and it was decided to break the power of Caesar. With this view it was neces- sary to deprive him of his command in Gaul. During the long maneuvering which followed, Caesar acted with the greatest moderation, and managed to throw upon his opponents the responsi- bility of violating the law. Under the direction of Pompey the senate sum- marily called upon him to resign the command and disband his army. The tribunes Mark Antony and Cassius put their veto on this motion; but they were violently driven out of the senate-cham- ber, and fearing for their lives, they fled to Caesar's camp. Things had now come to an extremity. The senate in- trusted Pompey with the duty of pro- viding for the safety of the state. His forces far outnumbered Caesar's legions, but they were scattered over the prov- inces of the empire, and the Italian levy was unprepared. In face of an enemy of such marvellous promptitude and energy as Julius Caesar this dila- toriness was fatal. Perceiving that the time for energetic action had at length arrived, Caisar harangued his victorious troops, who were willing to follow him anywhere; crossed the Rubicon (a small stream which separated his province from Italy proper), and moved swiftly southward". Pompey fled to Brundu- sium, pursued by Caesar, but contrived to reach Greece in safety, March 17, 49 B. C. The Italian cities everywhere opened their gates to the conqueror. In three months Caesar was master of all Italy. Caesar next subdued Pompey's legates in Spain, who were at the head of con-