Page:Collier's New Encyclopedia v. 01.djvu/82

AFFIRMATION According to another definition, it is a force exerted between two or more bodies at an infinitely minute distance apart, by which they give rise to a new substance, having different properties to those of its component parts. Elements have the greatest affinity for other elements which differ most in their chemical properties. Thus, H has great affinity for CI and O, but the affinity between and CI is much weaker. Acids unite readily with alkalies; most metals, with sulphur. A strong acid generally expels a weaker one. But when two salts are fused, if a more volatile compound is formed, it is driven off. The relative affinities between different substances varies with their temperature, insolubility, and power of vaporization. Alternation of temperature alters the affinity; thus, mercury heated to its boiling-point absorbs oxygen, which it liberates at a higher temperature.

Affinity of solution is such an affinity as exists between a soluble salt and the fluid in which it is dissolved. Till the liquid is saturated with the salt, the two can combine in an indefinite ratio, instead of being limited to the fixed proportions in which alone chemical affinity operates.

AFFIRMATION, the act of affirming, in the sense of solemnly declaring in a court of law that certain testimony about to be given is true. Also, the statement made. First, the Quakers and Moravians, who objected on conscientious grounds, to take oaths, were allowed to make solemn affirmations instead; now, everyone objecting to take an oath has the same privilege; but, as is just, false affirmations, no less than false oaths, are liable to the penalties of perjury.

AFGHANISTAN, an inland country of Asia, bounded on the W. by Persia, on the S. by British Baluchistan, on the E. by territory under British influence (determined 1893-1895), and on the N. by Russian Central Asia. Its area is about 250,000 square miles, or about twice the size of Great Britain and Ireland. The country, called Urlayat by its inhabitants, consists of elevated table-lands, diversified by mountains, and there is a great variety of climate. At Ghazni the winter is extremely rigorous; the climate of Seistan, in the S. W., is hot and trying; while, in other parts, it is temperate. The country may be divided into the five provinces of Kabul (Cabul), Herat, Ghazni, Seistan, and Kandahar. To the N. lie the still disputed regions of Turkestan and Badachshan, with their dependencies. Each province is ruled by a governor, under whom the nobles and kazis (magistrates), assisted by muftis, administer justice after a feudal fashion. The monarch of the whole country is styled the Ameer.

The population of Afghanistan is composed of a variety of nationalities, and is estimated at about 6,380,000. The Afghans proper, or Pathans, number about 3,000,000, and are divided into tribes, or clans—Duránis, Ghilzánis, Yúsufzáis, and others. In religion, they are Sunni-Mohammedans. In character, they are proud, vain, cruel, perfidious, extremely avaricious, revengeful, selfish, merciless, and idle. "Nothing is finer than their physique or worse than their morale." The Afghans do not, as a rule, inhabit towns, except in the case of those attached to the court and heads of tribes. The townsmen are mostly Hindkis and other non-Afghan races, who practice various trades and handicrafts considered derogatory by men of rank. The principal towns are Kabul (pop. about 150,000), the seat of government, and center of a fertile district; Ghazni, a strong fortress; Kandahar, the chief city of southern Afghanistan, with about 30,000 inhabitants; and Herat, formerly considered the key of India. Among the natural productions of Afghanistan is the plant yielding the asafœtida. The castor oil plant is everywhere common, and good tobacco is grown in the district of Kandahar. The cultivated area round Herat produces magnificent crops of wheat, barley, cotton, grapes, melons, and the mulberry tree. In special localities are forests of pistachio. The industrial products are silk, chiefly for domestic use, and carpets, those of Herat being of admirable quality. The manufacture of postins, or sheepskins, is one of the most important occupations.

History.—The history of Afghanistan, as an independent state, only dates from the middle of the 18th century. For two centuries before, Herat and Kandahar had been in the possession of Persia; while Kabul was included in the mogul empire of Delhi. Upon the death of Nadir Shah, in 1747, Ahmed Shah Duráni subjugated the different provinces, and, when he died in 1773, left an empire to his son, Timur Shah. The chief events in the history of Afghanistan are the expedition, in 1839, which established Shah Soojah on the throne; the rebellion of 1841, in which the Residents, Burnes and Macnaghten, were killed and the Anglo-Indian troops perished in the retreat; the punitive expedition, in 1842; the defeat of Dost Mohammed, in 1849; the war with Shere Ali, in 1878-1879, and installment of Yakub Khan; the rising