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LEFT ANATOMY 163 ANATOMY tury, but no very material progress was made in anatomy. Mondino, born at Mi- lan, 1315, is considered the real restorer of anatomy in Italy. William Horman, of Salisbury, wrote in 1530, "Anatomia Corporis Humani." Thomas Gemini, of London, in 1545, en- graved upon copper the anatomical fig- ures of Vesalius, which had appeared in Germany upon wood. Thomas Vicary, in 1548, is said to be the first who wrote in English on anatomy. In the 17th century, progress was rapid. In 1619 Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood, and the micro- scope was employed to detect the struc- ture in minute vessels. In 1622 Aselli discovered and demonstrated the exist- ence of the lymph vessels. The glandu- lar organs were investigated by Whar- ton; Malpighi, Swammerdam, and the illustrious Ruysch, by the use of injec- tions and the aid of the microscope, gave a new impulse to research in the minute structures. In Italy, which still retained its former pre-eminence, we find Pac- chioni, Valsalva, Morgagni, Santorini, Mascagni, and Cotunni; in France, Winslow, D'Aubenton, Lieutaud, Vicq d'Azyr, and Bichat, the founder of gen- eral anatomy; in Germany, Haller and Meckel prepared the way for greater achievements in the 19th century; in Great Britain, Cowper, Cheselden, Hun- ter, Cruikshank, Monro, and Charles Bell contributed to the progress of science; while Holland was worthily represented by Boerhaave, Albinus, Camper, Sandi- fort, and Bonn. The enormous strides made in practical anatomy during the last 50 years are largely due to the use of the microscope. The necessity of a union of theory and practice led to the study of patho- logical anatomy, which is the dissection and study of structures as modified by disease. In the 16th century, many no- tices of pathological anatomy o«cur, but Morgagni (1767) is regarded as the true founder of pathological anatomy. He was followed by Lieutaud, Sandifort, Hunter, Bailie, Meckel the younger, and others. The recent change of direction given to the study of pathological anat- omy must be ascribed to Bichat and the pupils of Broussais, among whom may be mentioned the names of Laennec, Louis, Andral, Leber, Virchow, and Bennett. Theoretical anatomy is divided into general and special. General anatomy gives a description of the elementary tis- sues of which the systems and organs of the body are composed, as preliminary to an examination of them in their com- bined state in the various organs; it also investigates their laws of formation and 12 — Vol. I— Cyc combination, and the changes which they undergo in various stages of life. Anat- omy has been divided, though not with scientific precision, into seven branches of study. (1) Osteology, which treats of the bones, including the cartilages of the joints Cchondrology) . (2) Arthrol- ogy, which describes the ligaments or bands that unite the bones of various joints. (3) Myology explains the sys- tem of the muscles, which, by their con- tractile power, serve to impart motion to the bones and joints; while, like the bones, they contribute to form the cavi- ties of the body, and to protect the in- ternal organs. Their form also serves to produce the external shape and sym- metry. (4) Angeiology describes the vessels and ducts, with their complex net- work and ramifications spreading over most parts of the body, and divided into two great systems: (a) the blood ves- sels with the heart, a fleshy organ pro- pelling the blood through the pulsating vessels or arteries, from which it re- turns to the heart, after circulation through the veins; (b) the lymphatics, by means of which a certain fluid (lymph) is passed through a series of organs named lymphatic glands, and af- terward enters the large veins at the root of the neck. The lacteals, which absorb the chyle from the intestine, also belong to this system of vessels. (5) Neurology, or the doctrine of the nerves, describes the nervous system, as divided into, first, the two central masses of the brain and the spinal cord; second, the ramifications of nerves running from the brain and spinal cord to almost all points of the surface; and lastly, the order of nerves having a peculiar structure and styled the ganglionic system of nerves. (6) Splanchnology describes the viscera or organs formed by combination of the distinct systems of veins, nerves, lymph- atics, etc., and mostly situated in the cavities of the body. These are divided into five groups, viz.: (a) the organs of the senses — sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch; (b) of voice and respiration — nostrils, mouth, larynx, trachea, and lungs, with the thyroid gland, the thymus gland, and the diaphragm; (c) digestive organs — the mouth, with its salivary glands, the throat, gullet, the stomach, the intestines, with the liver, spleen and pancreas; (d) the urinary organs — kid- neys, ureters, bladder, and urethra; (e) sexual organs of both sexes. (7) Em- bryology, the science v/hich treats of the first or rudimentary stage of existence. The eldest of the Monros of Edinburgh University first gave this branch of the study its due prominence. Comparative anatomy, the investiga- tion and comparison of the structures