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particularly everything that concerned education, were copied from Italian models. These were the only patterns then to be found; and the monks despatched from the papal court saw they could lay no better foundation for the Pontiff's power and their own aggrandizement than by inducing other States to follow the examples set them in Italy. Medical establishments were formed, therefore, everywhere at first according to the plan of that at Salerno. Particular places for vending medicines were more necessary in other countries than in Italy. The physicians of that period used no other drugs than those recommended by the ancients; and as these had to be procured from the Levant, Greece, Arabia, and India, it was necessary to send thither for them. Besides, herbs, to be confided in, could only be gathered when the sun and planets were in certain constellations, and certificates of their being so were necessary to give them reputation. All this was impossible without a distinct employment, and it was found convenient to suffer dealers in drugs gradually to acquire monopolies. The preparation of medicines was becoming more difficult and expensive. The invention of distillation, sublimation, and other chemical processes necessitated laboratories, furnaces, and costly apparatus; so that it was thought proper that those who devoted themselves to pharmacy should be indemnified by an exclusive trade; and monopolists could be kept under closer inspection so that the danger of their selling improper drugs or poisons was lessened or entirely removed. They were also allowed to deal in sweetmeats and confectionery, which were then great luxuries; and in some places they were required to give presents of these delicacies to the magistrates on certain festivals."

This extract shows how the German provision of protected pharmacy originated. In many of the chief cities the apothecaries' shops were established by, and belonged to, the King or Queen, or the municipality. Sometimes, as at Stuttgart, there was a contract between the ruler and the apothecary, the former agreeing to provide a certain quantity of wine, barley, and rye; while the apothecary in return was to supply the Court with its necessary confectionery.

Beckmann gives much minute information concerning the establishment of apothecaries' shops in the chief