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Rh confirmed. War continued to be waged in the Neth- also for political, reasons. The Jews were not regarded erlands and Italy, but this conflict was no longer by her with favour. After 1751 Protestants were not formidable. The conclusion of peace at Aix la Cha- permitted to sell their property and emigrate, but all, pelle, in 1748, put an end to the war of the Austrian who declined solemnly to become Catholics, were resuccession. The relations of the European Powers quired to emigrate to Transylvania where the Evanwere not vitally altered. What was important was gelical worship was {>ermitted. "Transmigration" that Prussia, though not recognized as a great power, took the place of ', emigration". Later she came to had to be tolerated as such. the conclusion that compulsion ought to be avoided,

(1746—1756).——Directly after the Peace of Dresden the empress applied her- self to the reform of the administration. In a memo- church, randum dated 1751 she herself says: "Since the Peace frequent communion, and fasting. She broke up the of Dresden it has been my sole aim to acquaint myself Freemason lodges by force in 1743. with the condition and strength of my states, and then

but that those who had gone astray should be led to conversion by argument and careful instruction. At court she was strict in regard to attendance at

(1756—1763).—— Maria honestlv to become acquainted with the abuses exist- Theresa would have carried out many more useful ing in them and in the Dicasteriis (courts of justice) measures had she not again turned to foreign politics. where everything was found to be in the utmost con- But she was irresistibly impelled to punish Prussia fusion." The initiative came from the aueen herself, and to reconauer Silesia. Her court and state chanHer assistant was Count Frederick William von cellor, Coimt Kaunitz (since 1753) recognized at times Haugwitz. Finances and the army were in sorest that it was better to come to an agreement with need of reorganization. The greatest necessity was Prussia, but he had not the courage to oppose the emthe raising of the money needed for a standing army press's designs. The opportunity of taking revenge of 108,000 men in the hereditary states and in Hun- on Prussia came when England and France made war gary. For this purpose 14 millions of gulden were on each other in North America and looked about for required. The diets were to raise them by regular European allies. In 1755 England received the assurgrants for a number of years, and in return would be ance of aid from Russia. To make Russia's assistance free from all taxes in kind. The rights of the several useless and in fact to paralyze her, Frederick the diets were thus restricted for the benefit of the coun- Great made the Westminster Treaty of Neutrality in try. Against this opposition arose. Maria Theresa, January, 1756 with England, by which the two Pow

however, came f orwara energetically in support of the ers bound themselves to prevent their respective alauthority of the government and by her personal in- lies, namely France and Russia, from attacking the fluence carried out the project. For the present the territory of the Confederates. This allowed the old pNBople of the several coimtnes made grants for a pe- rivals, Austria and France, to combine. Maria Therrioa of ten years, and when these had passed the new esa was annoyed that England had joined Prussia, and conditions had become habitual and become settled. France was disgusted with Prussia's independent To the credit of the empress it ought not to be for- policy, for she had reckoned upon Frederick's help, gotten that in the levying of this contribution for the Thus France and Austria made the defensive treaty army she did not permit any oppression of the work- of Versailles on 1 May, 1756. As tathe origin of the ing class. A much more important measure from Seven Years' War, whether it was an offensive or dethe point of view of the well-being of the state was fensive war on the part of Frederick the Great, this the separation of administration and justice. The has been the subject of much dispute. It must be Austrian and Bohemian court chancelleries, hitherto granted that Austria called upon France to participate separate, were combined into a single supreme admin- actively in a war against Prussia, and in return had istrative office. On the other hand, for the adminis- offered concessions in the Low Countries. She had tration of the Law, the supreme court was established, also come to a similar agreement with Russia. The In 1753 the empress appointed a commission to com- new war was an unfortunate undertaking. The prospile a new civil code. It was only in 1811, however, pects of regaining Silesia were not great, and the nope that it was published. During her reign (1768) the of weakening Prussia was an absolute chimera. Be"Constitutio criminalis Theresiana" was also pro- sides, France had no great interest in weakening mulgated for criminal law. Up to that time a heter- Prussia, and her active participation was doubtful ogeneous procedure prevailed in the different countries, from the beginning. In Russia the death of the emCentralization was also aided by the creation of new press and a consequent change of policy was imminent, district officials who were to carry out the measures of Frederick the Great foresaw the intentions of Maria the government in the several countries. As they had Theresa in good time, and anticipated her before the often to protect the subjects against the oppression of preparations of his enemy were completed. As the the lords, the people became much more devoted to empress made an evasive reply or no reply at all to his the government. enquiries as to her aims he entered Saxony on 28

For the promotion of trade and industry a bureau August, 1756,. and Bohemia in September and de of commerbe was established in 1746, but its develop- feated the Austrians on 1 October, at Lobositz. The

ment wsis hindered by the internal duties. The over- attack, which was clearly a breach of the peace,

sea trade greatly increased. The army was improved, brought about the immediate conclusion of the alli the Prussian army being taken as a model; in 1752 a ances. Frederick made an alliance with England in '

military academy, and in 1754 an academy of engi- January, 1757. France and Austria came to an agree neering science were established. The empress also ment (on 1 May, 1757) in regard to the partition of

gave her attention to education and especially to the Prussia, after Austria had come to an understanding

middle and higher schools. The gymnasia received a with Russia in January. Frederick had to defend him new curriculum in 1752. The medical faculty of the self on every side. He was on the offensive only in

University of Vienna, after being long neglected, was 1757 and 1758. Later he had to confine himself to

raised to greater efficiency. The legal faculty also be- acting on the defensive. The Seven Years' War was a

came a strong body. Moreover, the empress founded long struggle in which fortune alternately favoured

the academy of the nobles (Theresianum) and the either side. In contrast with Frederick the Great's

academy for Oriental languages as well as the archives victories at Prague (6 May, 1757), at Rossbach (5 No for the imperial family, court and state, which since vember, 1757), at Leuthen (15 December, 1757), at

1749, had oeen a model of its kind. In her dealings Torgau (3 November, 1760) stand his serious defeats

with Catholicism the empress adopted the principle at Kolin (18 June, 1757), at Hochkirch (14 October,

" cuj us regio,ej us religio", and defended unity of faith 1758), and at Kunersdorf (12 August, 1759). In

in the State not only for Christian and religious, but the West the allies effected very little against th«