Page:Catholic Encyclopedia, volume 9.djvu/502

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Lutheran symboLs, was drawn up in 1577, and ac- cepted by the majority of the state Ghurohes. The document was written in a conciliatory spirit, but it secured the triumph of the orthodox party.

(b) Second Period: From the Aaoption of the Form of Concord to the Beginning of the Pietistic Movement (158Q-1689). — During this period LuUier- anism was engaged in bitter polemics with its neigh- bours in Germany. Out of these religious discords grew the horrors of the Thirty Years War, which led many persons to desire better relations between the churches. A ' ' charitable colloquy ' ' was held at Thorn in 1645 by Catholic, Lutheran, and Calvinist theolo- gians, but nothing was accomplished. The proposal of the Lutheran professor, Georse Calixtus, that the confessions ors^nize into one church with the con- sensus of the tirst five centuries as a common basis (Syncretism), aroused a storm of indignation, and, by way of protest, a creed was accepted by the Saxon universities which expressed the views of the most radic^ school of Lutneran orthodoxy (1655). The Lutheran theologians of this period imitated the dis- orderly arrangement of Melanchthon's *'Loci Theo- logici", but in spirit they were with few exceptions loyal supporters of the Form of Concord. Although the writings of Luther abound with diatribes against the speculative sciences, his followers early perceived the necessity of philosophy for controversial purposes. Melanchthon developea a system of Aristoteleanism, and it was not long before the Scholastic method, which Luther had so cordially detested, was us^ by the Evangelical theologians, although the new Scho- lasticism was utterly different from the genuine sys- tem. Lutheran dogmatics became a maze of refined subtleties, and mere logomachv was considered the chief duty of the theologian. The result was a fanati- cal orthodoxy, whose only activity was heresy-hunting and barren controversv. New attempts were made to unite the Evangelical Churches. Conferences were held in 1586, 1631, and 1661; a plan of union was pro- posed by the Heidelberg professor Pareus (1615); the Reformed Synod of Ch^nton (1631) voted to admit Lutheran sponsors in baptism. But again the doctrine of the Lord s Supper proved an obstacle, as the Luther- ans would agree to no union that was not based upon perfect dogmatic consensus. By the Peace of West- phalia (16&) the concessions which had been made to the Lutherans in 1555 were extended to the Reformed.

(c) Third Period: From the Beginning of the Pie- tistic Movement to the Evangelical Imion (168d- 1817). — Pietism, which was a reaction against the cold and dreary formalism of Lutheran orthodoxy, orig- inated with Philip Spener (1635-1705). In sermons and writings he asserted the claims of personal hoU- ness, and in 1670, while dean at Frankfort-on-the- Main, he began to hold little reunions called collegia pietcUis (whence the name Pietist), in which devotional passages of the Scriptures were explained and pious conversation carried on by those present. His fol- lower, August Francke, founded in 1604 the Univer- sity of H£ule, which became a stronghold of Pietism. The strict Lutherans accused the Pietists of heresy, a charge which was vigorously denied, although in {act the new school differed from the orthodox not only in practice, but also in doctrine. The first enthusiasm of the Pietists soon degenerated into fanaticism, and they rapidly lost favour. Pietism had exercised a beneficial influence, but it was followed by the Ration- alistic movement, a more radical reaction against orthodoxy, which effected within the Lutheran, as in other Protestant communions, manv apostasies from Christian belief. The philosophy of the day and the national literature, then ardently cultivated, had gradually undermined the faith of all classes of the people. The leaders in the Church adiusted themselves to the new conditions, and soon theological chairs and the pulpits were filled by mm who re]pMled not only

the dogmatic teaching of the Symbolical Books, but every supernatural element of religion. A notable exception to this growing infideUty was the sect of Hermhuters or United Brethren, founded in 1722 by Count von Zinzendorf, a follower of the Pietistic school (see Bohemian Brbthben). The critical state of their churches caused many Protestants to long for a union between the Lutherans and the Reformed. The royal house of Prussia laboured to accomplish a union, but all plans were frustrated by the opposition of the theologians. There were for a time prospects of a reconciliation of the Hanoverian Lutherans with the Cathohc Church. Negotiations were carried on be- tween the Catholic Bisnop Spinola and the Lutheran representative Molanus (1691). A controversy on the points at issue followed between Bossuet and Leitmifl (1692-1701), but no agreement was reached.

(d) Fourth Period: From the Evangelical Union (1817) to the Present. — ^The chief events in the Luth* eran Churches in Germany during the nineteenth century were the Evangelical Union and the revival of orthodoxy. During the celebration of the tercen- tenary of the Reformation in 1817, efforts were made in Prussia to unite Lutherans and Reformed. Fred- erick William III recommended the use of a common Utui^ by the two churches, and this proposal grad- ually won acceptance. There was much opposition, however, to the service-book published by royal authority in 1822. John Scheibel, deacon in Breslau, refused to accept it, and, being deposed from oflice, founded a separatist sect known as the *'01d Luther* ans" (1830). The Government used very oppressive measures against these nonconformists, but in 1845 the new king, Frederick William IV, recognized them as an independent Lutheran sect. In 1860 the Old Lutherans were greatly reduced in numbers by the defection of Pastor Diedrich, who oiganized the inde- pendent Immanuel Synod. There were also separatist movements outside of Silesia. Free Lutheran Churches were established by dissenters in Hesse, Hanover, Baden, and Saxony. A supematuralist movement, which defended the Divinely inspired character of the Bible, started a reaction against the principle of ra- tionalism in theology. The centenary lubilees of 1817 and the following years, which recalled the early days of Lutheranism, brought with them a revival of former orthodoxv. The theological faculties of several uni- versities became strictly Lutheran in their teachings. Since then there has been a persistent and bitter strug- gle between rationalistic and Evangelical tendencies m the United and Free Churches.

(2) The Lutherans in Denmark and Scandinavia, — (a) Denmark. — By the Union of CJalmar (1397), Sweden, Norway, and Denmark became a united kuij^ dom under the King of Denmark. The despotic Chris- tian II (1513-23) endeavoured to introduce the Reformation, but was overthrown by his barons. Frederick I of Schleswig-Holstein, his successor, op^ly prof^teed Lutheranism in 1526. At the Diet of Odense (1527) he obtained a measure which guar^ anteed equal rights to his coreligionists, and two years later he proclaimed Lutheranism the only true reU-

S'on. Under his successor. Christian III (1533-59). le Catholic bishops were deprived of their sees, ana the Lutheran Church of Denmark was organized with the king as supreme bishop. The Diet of Copenhagen (1546) enacted penal laws, which deprived Catholics of civil rights and forbade priests to remain in Dcai- mark under pain of death. The opposition of Iceland to the new religion was put down by force (1550). German rationalism was propagated in Denmark fay Clausen. Among its opponents was Grundtvig, leader of the Grundtvigian movement 0824), which advo- cated the acceptance of the Apostles' Creed as the sole rule of faith. Freedom of religious worship was granted in 1849.

(b) Norway, which was united wvtK ^^^Kssasa^K.