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note thftt in the sixteenth century, ^metiy, astron- may, and geography found at Louvain celebrated pro- feeaote who paved the way for the practical achieve- ments of Antwerpian cartography. Adrian Romaniw and Gemma Frisius are ita accredited representatives. The Cartesian disputes of the seventeenth century gave rise to heated controversies, the stirring history of which has been related by Georges Hinchamp (Le Cart^sianisme en Belgique, I8S6). The same is true of the system of CopemicuB and the trials of Galileo (Monchamp, " Galilfe et fa Belgique", Brussels, 1892). The eighteenth oentury brings the name of Minckelers, who Jnveated illiuninatinii; gas. Within the last few years several monuments have been erected tu him at teutsmcht and at Louvnin, and Professor Dcwalque, of Louvain, has written his biogranhy. The history of each science will not be related here, as it should properly be left to specialists. This in particular is true as regards the faculty of medicine. It may be stated, however, that although few in number this faculty grouped in its midst and about it powerful elements of progress. Vesalius and Van Helmont worked at Louvain; R^ga was an authmity in surgery in the eighteenth century, and there are many I '

Belonging to a very different order in virtue of its high mission stands the faculty of theology. The ta^ of treating its doctrines hes lieyond the scoi>e of this article. As a whole its history is one of fruitful activity to which its numerous productions bear wit- ness. It was disturbed by the currents of thought which agitated religious doctrine throu^out the world, but it vigorously resisted Protestantism. The errors which sprang from ita bosom throu^ the teach- ings of Balus and Jansenius cauaed senous anxiety during the entire seventeenth centui?. In the eigh- teenth century the influence of Febronianism and Josephinism was strongly felt, without, however, ever becoming predominant m the faculty. The theolog- ical teaching, from the end of the seventeenth century onwards, was based upon that of the scholastics, tho writings of St. Thomas Aquinas having replaced those of Peter Lombard, Special scholastic chairs were added through the initiative of the princes. Among its illustrious teachers we shall name but one: Adrian Floris, tutor of Charles V, later Cardinal of Utrecht, and finally pope under the name of Adrian VI (1522). To him is due the foundation of a university college which still bears his name.

The statutes of the university had been modified several times, but the laura doeUiralis was throughout the crowning feature of the studies. The doctorate ceremonies were not ahke in all the faculties nor were they the only onee observed in the university; but the conferring of d^rees was always a considerable event accompanied with festivities academical, gastronomi- cal, and public. Not only did solemn processions pass through the town, but these were repeated in each community according to a traditional ntuaJ both comphcated and onerous. These functions were conmnemorated in verse, tableaux, stories and are perpetuated in the nation's memory. Except for well- )ustified retrenchments, the custom has been main- tained in certain doct«ratea, the conferring of which atill preserves the festive form and the public proces- sion. Certain competitions in the faculty of arts roused great interest. At the conclusion of each com- petition the candidates were graded; the " Primus" In the first "line" became from that fact an important personage, an honour to hia family and city.

It goes without saying that the student body of Louvain was not given exclusively to study. The

dee of the university and the rect«ral tribunal who jurisdiction over the entire academic body occa- sionally had very difficult cases to handle. During

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the civil wars the habits of the young men had not be- come any more peaceful. If it happened that in the sixteenth century they rrndcred Ixjuvain the great service of saving it from being taken and pillaged by armed bands, on the other hand their rapiers often en- dangered public peace. Unfortunately we have but few tacts concerning the student life of the period, although one of our historians, Poullet, has written an interesting sketch (see "Revue catholique", Lou- vain, 1867). Certain articles of the statutes con- stituted the disciplinary code relating to the viola- tion of university regulations, and during the stormy times of civil struggles and general warfare, the academic tribunal had all it could do to keep the restless student throng in order. Studies at the uni- versity went through various phases. For a long time they were under the exclusive jurisdiction of the uni- versity body itself. But in the midst of civil disturb- ances, certain weaknesses and defects of organisation became apparent, and these the authorities endea- voured to remedy. -At the beginning of the seven- teenth century an important fact is to be noted: tbs

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investigation and reform of 1617. In union with Paul V, and after a careful examination the sovereign archdukes published new university statutes. Thence- forth the programme of studies and the conferring of degrees were minutely provided for. Moreover, the diploma of studies and examinations was generally required for the professions of law and of medicine. There was still free acientific activity, but the profes- sional r^ulating tendencies were much in evidence in the faculties of law and of medicine. The new regula-

withstanding the complaints of the Gover the score of discipline.

The seventeenth century cunnot be looked upon ns a period of decay for the university, as there ore noted names and numerous scholarly productions. True, ancient literature no longer had the brilliancy given it by Justus Lipsius up to 1606, but there were very dis- tinguished jurists, noted Humanists (like Putiamus). The attraction exerted by Louvain was still very great. In fact it was only towards the middle of the seventeenth century that the niitio germaniea, which comprised a succession of distingushed names from various parts of the empire, was officially establisbed- Louvain was celeltrated and many studied there in preference to the Protestant universities of Germany and Holland (Wils, "L'illustre nation germnnique, Louvain, 1909). Publications, Belgian bibliographiea of various kinds flourished-, the '' ftvyiiWOM^si. ""i^ii-