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Crispi. But it in uot known on what lines they were (22 Jan., 1890). In the Brief "Apostolice Curs'*

conducted. On Cridpi's part there could have l^een no (1896) he definitively decided against the validity of

(uicstion of ceding any territory to the Holy See. Anglican Orders. In several other memorable encye-

I^ ranee, moreover, then irritated against Italy be- licals he treated of the most serious questions affectmg

cause of the Triple Alliance, and fcarine that any modern society. They are models of classical style,

rapprochement between the Vatican and the Quirinal clearness of statement, and convincing logic. The

would serve to increase her rival's prestige, interfered most important are: *' Arcanum divinsB sapientia"

and forced Leo to break off the aforesaid negotiations (1880) on Christian marriage; ^'Diutumum illud"

by threatening to renew hostilities against the Church (1881), and " Immortale Dei'' (1885) on Christianity

in France. The death of Monsi^or Carini shortly as the foundation of political hfe; ''Sapienti® chrb*

after this (25 June, 1895) ^ave rise to the senseless tianse" (1890) on the duties of a Christian citiien;

rumour that he had been poisoned* Pope Leo was no '^Libertas'' (1888) on the real meaning of UberU^;

less active concerning the interior life of the Church. '^Humanum genus" (1884) against Freemasonry (he

To increase the piety of the faithful, he reconunendcd also issued otner documents taring on this subject),

in 1882 the Third Order of St. Francis, whose rules in Civilisation owes much to Leo for his stand on the

1883 he wisely modified; he instituted the feast of the social question. As early as 1878, in his encyclical on

Holy Family, and desired societies in its honour to be the equality of all men, he attacked the fundamental

founded everywhere (1892); many of his encyclicals error of Socialism. TheEncychcal^Rerumnovarum"

preach the benefits of the Rosary; and he favoured (18 May, 1891) set forth with profound erudition the

greatly devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus. Christian principles bearing on the relations between

Under Leo the Catholic Faith made great progress; capital and labour, and it gave a vigorous inipulse to during his pontificate two hundred and forty-eight the social movement along Christian lines. In Italy, episcop^al or archiepiscopal sees were created, and especially, an intense, well-organized movement be- forty-eight vicariates or prefectures Apostolic. Cath- gsui; but gradually dissensions broke out, some leaning olics of Oriental rites were objects of special attention; too much towards Socialism and giving to the words he had the ^ood fortune to see the end of the schism " Christian Democracy " a political meaning, while which arose in 1870 between the Uniat Armenians and others erred by going to the opposite extreme. In ended in 1879 by the conversion of Mgr. Kupelian and 1901 appeared the Encyclical " Graves de Communi ", other schismatical bishops. He founded a college destinea to settle the controverted points. The at Rome for Armenian ecclesiastical students (188^, "Catholic Action" movement in Italy was reorgan- and by dividing the college of S. Atanasio he was able ized, and to the ** Opera dei Congressi '' was added a to give the Ruthenians a college of their own; already second group that took for its watchword economic- in 1882 he had reformed the Kuthenian Order of St. social action. Unfortunately this latter did not last Basil; for the Chaldeans he founded at Mossul a semi- long, and Pius X had to create a new party which has nary of which the Dominicans have charge. In a not yet overcome its internal difficulties, memorable encyclical of 1897 he appealed to all the Under Leo the religious orders developed wonder- schismatics of the East, inviting them to return to the fully; new orders were founded, older ones increased. Universal Church, and laying down rules for govern- and in a short time made up for the losses occasioned ing the relations between the various rites in countries by the unjust spoliation they had been subjected to. of mixed rites. Even among the Copts his efforts at ^ong every line of religious and educational activity reunion made headway. they have proved no small factor in the awakening and

The ecclesiastical sciences found a generous patron strengthening of the Christian life of the whole coun-

in Pope Leo. His Encyclical *'^temi Patris'' (1880) try. For their better guidance w^ise constitutions

recommended the study of Scholastic philosophy, es- were issued; reforms were made; orders such as the

pecially that of St. Thomas Aquinas, but he did not Franciscans and Cistercians, which in times past had

advise a servile study. In Rome he established the divided off into sections, were once more united; and

Apollinare College, a higher institute for the Latin, the Benedictines were given an abbot-primate, who

Greek, and Italian classics. At his suggestion a Bo- resides at St. Anselm's College, founded in Rome under

hemian college was founded at Rome. At Anagni he the auspices of Pope Leo (1883). Rules were laid

founded and entrusted to the Jesuits a college for all down concerning members of religious orders who be-

the dioceses of the Roman Campagna, on which are came secularized.

modelled the provincial or "regional" seminaries de- In canon law Pope Leo made no radical change, yet sired by Pius A. Historical scholars arc indebted to no part of it escaped his vigilance, and opportune lum for the opening of the Vatican Archives (1883), on modifications were made as the needs of the times re- which occasion he published a splendid encyclical on quired. On the whole his pontificate of twenty-five the importance of historical studies, in which he de- years was certainly, in external success, one of the most clares that the Church has nothing to fear from his- brilliant. It is true the general peace oetween nations torical truth. For the administration of the Vatican favoured it. The people were tired of that antideri- Archives and Librarv he called on eminent scholars calism which had led governments to forget their real (Hergenrother, Deniflc, Ehrle; repeatedly he tried to purpose, i. e. the well-being of the governed; and, on obtainJanssen, but the latter declined, as he was eager the other hand, prudent statesmen feared excessive to finish his ** History of the German People"). For catering to the elements subversive of society. Leo the convenience of students of the archives and the himself used every endeavour to avoid friction. His Ubrarv he established a consulting library. The Vat- three jubilees (the golden jubilees of his priesthood ican 01>servatory is also one of the glories of Pope and of his episcopate, and the silver jubilee of his pon- Leo XIII. To excite Catholic students to rival non- tificate) showed now wide was the popular sympathy Catholics in the study of the Scriptures, and at the for him. Moreover, his appearance either at Vatican same time to guide their studies, he published the receptions or in St. Peter's was always a signal for out- " Pro videntissums Deus" (1893), which won the admi- bursts of enthusiasm. Leo was far from robust in ration even of Protestants, and in 1902 he appointed a health, but the methodical regularity of his life stood Biblical Commission. Also, to guard against the dan- him in good stead. He was a tireless worker, and al- ters of the new style of apologetics founded on Kant- ways exacted more than ordinary effort from those ism and now knowTi as Modernism (n. v.). he warned who worked with him. The conditions of the Holy in 1899 the French clergy (Encycl. ** Au Milieu"), and See did not permit him to do much for art, but he re- before that, in a Brief ^dressed to Cardinal Gibbons, newed the apse of the Lateran Basilica, rebuilt its he pointed out the dangers of certain doctrines to presbytery, and in the Vatican caused a few halls to be which had been given the name of "Americanism" painted.