Page:Catholic Encyclopedia, volume 8.djvu/634

 JULIAN

558

JULIAN

literary campaign in the interests of the new heresy, and by his writings soon won for himself the position of intellectual leader of the heretical party. To him is due the credit of having systematized the teachings of Pelagius and Ccelestius. His writings, which were frankly Pelagian, were largely directed against the doctrines which St. Augustine had defended, and for several years after the expulsion of the Pelagians the history of the conflict is merely an account of the controversy between Julian and Augustine. Most of Julian's works are lost, and are known only through the copious quotations found in the works of his great adversary. Principal among them are the letter to Rufus, Bishop of Thessalonica, and the epistle to the Roman clergy, which Augustine, at the request of Pope Boniface, refuted in his work "Against Two Letters of the Pelagians"; the reply to Augustine's work " De Nuptiis et Concupiscentia " ; and his answer to Augustine's defence of .his own work. Driven from Italy, he found refuge for a time with Theodore of Mopsuestia, who, though sympathetic, subsequently subscribed to his condemnation. At the accession of each pontiff Julian sought to have the Pelagian con- troversy re-opened, but this merelj' resulted in further condemnations by Celestine, Sixtus III, and Leo I. For a time he enjoyed the patronage and friendship of Nestorius, the Patriarch of Constantinople, and the protection of the Emperor Theodosius II. But Marius Mercator, by his " C'ommonitorium de Coe- lestio", opened the eyes of the emperor to the true character of Pelagianism. By reason of this Julian was expelled from Constantinople. His subsequent career, with the exception of his attempts to concili- ate the popes, is not known. Julian was the most learned among the Pelagians, and, though superior to Pelagius and Ccelestius, his system did not differ materially from theirs.

Bahdenhewer, Patrology, tr. Shahan (St. Louis, 1908); Davids in Diet. Christ. Bioff., s. v. JiUianus of Eclana; Worter, Der Pelagianismus nach seinem Ursprunge und seiner Lehre (Freiburg im Br., 1866; 2iid ed.. 1874); Klasen, Die innere Entwicklung des Pelagianismus (Freiburg im Br., 1882); He- fele, Conciliengeschichte, II, 104 sq. ; Bruckner, Julian von Ecianum., sein Leben und seine Lehre in Texie und Unterstich- ungen, XV (Leipzig, 1897), iii.

Patrick J. Healy.

Julian of Halicarnassus. See Eutychianism.

Julian o£ Speyer, often called Julianits Teu- To.vicus, a famous composer, poet, and historian of the thirteenth century, b. at Speyer; d. at Paris about 1250 (not in 1285, as is so often stated). He studied at the celebrated University of Paris, and was the musical director at the royal chapel during the reigns of Philip Augustus (1179-1223) and Louis VIII (1223-6) of France. When he resigned to become a member of the newly founded Order of St. Francis is not known. But it is certain that Julian accom- panied Brother Simon Angelicus to his native land, when the latter was made Provincial of Germany by the General Chapter of Assisi in 1227. It is probable that he was present at the translation of St. Francis at Assisi in May, 1230. Subsequently he again lived in Paris at the great convent of the Minorites, where he was choir-master as well as corrector mensa: (in which capacity he superintended the reading in the refectory). He is renowned as a scholar, artist, and a saintly religious. .Mthough, in the Middle Ages, Julian of Speyer was held in high repute as the com- poser and writer of rliymed offices, he was almost for- gotten until the last decade. It is certain that he composed the rhymed OHice (technically termed hisUiria in the MiddU' Ages) of St. Francis of Assisi (written between 2:> Fel)ruary, 1229, and 4 October, l'_M.')), as will as tliat of St. Anthony of Padua, who was canonized on 30 May, 1232 (composed probably shortly after 1241).

Both these musical, as well as poetical, masterpieces are still used by the Minorites. The acme of litur-

gical narrative poems, these works are equally distin- guished for the harmony, rhythm, and rhyme of the verses, and for their sublime expressiveness as musical compositions. Of their kind they are unequalled. Only a few sentences in the third nocturn (the anti- phons) were written by Pope Gregory IX and the cardinals; the remainder is all Juhan's composition. Even outside the Franciscan Order the rhythmic structure has been often copied, whole verses being frequently taken (especially from the " Historia rhyth- mica" of St. Francis), and these plagiarisms set to Julian's melodies without any alteration. It is not known how much of the poetical narrative of St. Dominic (d. 1221), used on his feast by both Fran- ciscans and Dominicans, belongs to Juhan of Speyer. Some portions at least of the Mass formula of Sts. Francis and Anthony are undoubtedly the musical and poetical composition of Julian. Only in the last decade was Julian recognized as the author of the "Legenda S. Francisci" — partly published in the "Acta SS.", October, II, 548 sqq., and published in full in " Analecta BoUandiana ", XXI (1902), 160-202 • — and of the "Vita ab auctore anonymo" of St. Anthony of Padua, printed in the "Acta SS.", June, II, 705 sqq.

d'Araules in Revue Franciscaine, XXIX (Bordeaux, 1899), 214 sqq.; Idem in Voix de St-Antoine (Paris, 1899), 167 sqq.; Idem, La Vie de St-Antoine de Padoue par Jean Rigauld, O.F.M. (Bordeaux and Brive, 1899); Weis, Julian von Speier (d. 1286). Forschungen zur Franziskus- und Antoniuskritik, etc. (Munich, 1900); Idem, Die Chorale Julians von Speier zu den Reimoffv- zien des Franciskus- und Antoniusjestes (Munich, 1901); d'A- LENfON, De Legenda S. Francisci a Fr. Juliano de Spira con- scripta (Rome, 1900); Anal. Bolland., XIX (Brussels, 1900), 321-40; XXI (1902), 148-202; Felder, S. Francisci Ass. et S. Antonii Pat. Offlcia rhythmica. Die liturgischen Reimoffizien. auf die hhl. Franciscus urid Antonius, gedichtet und componirt durch Fr. Julian von Speier (d. c. 1250) (Freiburg, 1901); Oliger in the Archiv. Francisc. Hist., I (Quaracchi, 1908), 45-9.

Michael Bihl.

Julian the Apostate (Flavius Claudius Ju- lianits), Roman emperor 361-63, b. at Constantinople in 331; d. 26 June, 363; son of Julius Constantius, the half-brother of Constantine the Great. With his step- brother Gallus, who was some years older, he escaped the massacre of his kinsfolk at Constantinople after the death of Constantine the Great, and was brought up by the eunuch Mardonius and the philosopher Nicocles — the latter secretly a pagan. The suspicious Emperor Constantius sent Julian later to the castle of Macellum in Cappadocia. Julian received a Christian training, but the recollection of the murder of his rela- tives sowed in him a bitter resentment against the authors of that massacre, and he extended this hatred to the Christians in general. When Constantius be- came involved in war in the West with the usurper Magnentius, he named Gallus his colleague, with the title of C«sar. Julian was allowed to study at Con- stantinople, but his intellectual character aroused at- tention and caused Constantius to send him in 350 to Nicomedia. Here Julian devoted himself exclusively to neo-Platonic philosophy, mixed with all kinds of magic and mysteries. The neo-Platonist, Maximus of Ephesus, dazzled him by his fantastic teachings and prophesied his destined task, the restoration of pagan- ism. When, at the close of 354, Constantius recalled Gallus Csesar to Italy, and had him beheaded for his manifold cruelties, Julian was taken a state prisoner to Milan, but, gaining the sympathy of the Empress Eusebia, secured permission to visit in 355 the schools of .\thens, where Greek philosophy and rhetoric were enjoying thoir last period of prosperity. Julian now went over completely to the so-called Hellenism, and was initiated into the Elcusinian mysteries.

Julian was presented on (i November, 355, to the army as Cajsar, married the emperor's youngest sister Helena, and then sent to C.aul. Here he at once displayed great ability, both as soldier and ad- ministrator. He boldly advanced from his head- quarters at Vicnnc to Reims, and thence made a sally