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reform) and of Raiitenstrauch (Studicnplan) in 1776, and the introduction of Riegger's "Manual of Canon Law", paved the way for the creation of the gen- eral theological seminaries. Joseph founded twelve: at Vienna, Graz, Prague, Olniiitz, Presburg, Pesth, Innsbruck, Freiburg, Lemberg (two for Galicia, Greek and Latin Rites), Louvain, and Pavia. In 1783 all the monastic schools and diocesan houses of studies were suppressed. The "general seminaries" were boarding-houses (Koiivilcte) connected with the universities; some of them, however, had their own theological courses. Five years of study in the seminary were followed by one in the bishop's train- ing-house {Priesterhaus) or in a monastery. The principles of the seminary directors were Liberal, in keeping with the rationalistic theology of the State. Sharp opposition arose, especially on the part of the ecclesiastical foundations {Stifte) and the monasteries. The novices, educated at their expense in the general seminaries, for the most part lost their monastic vocation. Some of the general seminaries were badly managed. At Innsbruck, Pavia, and Louvain, un- suitaljle directors were appointed; at Louvain the general seminary was eventually the cause of a civil war and of the revolt of Belgium. However, other seminaries sent forth efficient pastors and learned theologians (Freiburg). The fermentation within the ranks of the cicrgj' of south-west Germany and Austria until after the middle of the nineteenth cen- tury came from the Liberal ideas imbibed at this time. The accounts of the deploraljly depraved conditions in the general seminaries, which are met with in earlier Catholic literature (Theiner, S. Brunner, Briick, Stbckl) and occasionall}' repeated even now, are in part exaggerations of faults and blunders that were real enough; to a considerable extent, however, they are based on forgeries "invented for the purpose of stir- ring up the smouldering flames of the Belgian Revolu- tion". Seminaries like those of Freiburg and Vienna were counted among the worst, though it has been since proved that they were among the best. The most appalling abuses were reported of a seminary at Rottenburg in the Tyrol, though there was never a seminary in the place. These accusations, true or false, but chiefly the exhaustion of the " religious fund", liastened their suppression in 1790. They became, however, the models of the actual theological Konvikte (houses for aspirants to the priesthood after their classical instruction in a state gj-mnasiimi), and the programme of studies laid out by Rautenstraueh is to this da3' the groundwork of the curriculiun in the Catholic theological faculties of Germany and Austria. The vesting of all ecclesiastical property in a single treasury- was impossible in practice. In the case of monastic property it was capitalized at great loss. The capital of every church and foundation had to be de- scribed publicly, converted into national bonds, and invested in the "religious fund". In this way Joseph to a certain extent satisfied his distrust of the ecclesiastical administration of property, while the same was placed at the service of the heavily encimi- bered state treasury. But many of the enterprises formerly conducted by the religious foundations could be no longer carried on owing to the slender returns. Still greater was the damage done to the credit and the resources of entire provinces, for hitherto the eccle- siastical institutions (e. g. the confraternities, chapels and churches in the country districts had been the only moneylenders. Peasants, mechanics, and arti- sans were now placed at the mercy of usurious Jews and foreigners, while many were forthwith ruined by the sudden demands made on them. A tax was also levied on church property which had escaped com- plete secularization. From 17SS it was imposed on the still existing religious orders and on the secular clergy. This oppressively high income-tax was meant to divert into the coffers of the " religious fund" all

revenues of the aforesaid institutions not absolutely necessary for the support of life.

(c) Historical Importance. — The Religionsfonds was not the magnanimous act in favour of the religious needs of the people that it is held to have been. Formed by consolidating almost the entire property of the Church, it undertook only such obligations as it was in any case the duty of the State to fulfil, especially after the suppression of institutions which had pre- viously of their own accord relieved the State of a portion of these burdens. Moreover the "religious fund" was from the first diverted to other reforms, e. g. in education; in time of war it was made to contribute heavy subsidies and suspended almost all its contributions for the religious needs of the people. We can thus easily understand how in the nineteenth century the "religious fund" came to need state-aid, which indeed the State was in justice bound to give in view of the fact that the national bonds, in which the " religious fund" had been chiefly invested, had sunk to one-fifth of their face value. The secularization under Joseph, if less offensive than other well-known secular- izations, is nevertheless reprehensible. Joseph under- took liis reforms with the best intentions, but left only vague and incomplete semblances of reform. After a reign of ten years and fully aware of his failure, he ended his unhappy and lonely existence (20 February, 1790), leaving even the monarchy itself in peril. Hun- garj' was in a ferment; Belgium had just been lost; other provinces were in a state of violent discontent. But though in general the Josephinist system col- lapsed, its essential principles remain: the efforts for union among all the lands of Austria are one result of the system; another is the attitude of the nine- teenth-century State towards the Church.

Arneth, Gesch. Marias Therexias (10 vob., Vienna, 1863-79); Idem, Maria Th. u. Joseph II. litre Corresponded (Vienna, 1S67-S); Brdnner, Die theolog. Dienerschajl am Hofe Josephs II. (Vienna, 1S68); Bruok, Die rationalist. Beslrebungen im kath. DeutschTnnd (Mainz. 1865); Franz, Studien zur kirchl. Reform Josephs II. (Freiburg, 190S) ; Geier. Die Durch/uhrung der kirchl. Reform Jos. II. (Stuttgart. 1905) ; Krones, Hand- buch der Gesch. Oesterreichs (Berlin, 1878 — ), gives early bibliog- raphy; KuSej, Joseph II. u. die aussere Kirchenverfassung Innerusterreichs (Stuttgart, 1908); Lorenz, Jos. II. u. die bel- gische Revolution (Vienna, 1862); Merkle. Die kath. Beur- teilung des Aufkldrungszeitalters (Berlin. 1909); Ranke, Die deutschen Machte u. der Furstenbund (Leipzig, 1875); RuscH, Das Kirchenrecht im Zeitalter der Aufklarung in Archiv fur kath. Kirchenrecht (Mainz, 1903-5); Schutter, Reise Pius VI. nach Wien (Vienna, 1892); Wolf, Oesterreich unter M. Theresia, Jos. II. u. Leopold II. (Berlin, 1882); Wolfsgruber, Kard. Migazzi (Ravensburg, 1897); Codex Juris ecclesiastici Jose- p/nni (Presburg, 1789). On the general seminaries: Theiner, Gesch. der geistl. Bildungsanstalten (Mainz, 1835); Stockl, Lehrbuch derGesck. der Padagogik (1876); Zschokke, Die theol. Studien in Oesterreich (Vienna, 1894); Konig, Beilrage zur Gesch. dertheol. Fakultaten in Freiburg in Freiburger Diozesanar- chiv, X, XI (Freiburg, 1877-8); Idem, Programm der Vniver- sitdt (Freiburg, 1884), also the above-named works of Brunner, Bruck, Franz, and Merkle.

H. Franz.

Joseph, SisTEHs OF Saint. — Congregation op THE Sisters of St. Joseph, founded at Le Puy, in Velay, France, by the Rev. Jean-Paul M^daille of the Society of Jesus (b. at Carcassonne, 29 Jan., 1618; d. at Auch, 15 May, 16S9). He was admitted into the Society in 1640, became noted as a teacher of rhetoric and philosophy before entering upon his career as a preacher, in which he distinguished himself by his great oratorical power, but most especially by his marvellous influence over souls. He encouraged a few of his most fervent penitents to consecrate them- selves to the service of God, and addressed himself to the Bishop of Le Puy, the Right Rev. Henri de Mau- pas, a friend and disciple of the great .^t. Vincent de Paul. The bishop invited the aspirants to assemble at Le Puy where shortly afterwards he placed them in charge of the orphan asylum for girls. On 15 October, 1650, he addressed them as a religious commimity, placed them under the protection of St. Joseph, and ordereil that they should be called the Congregation of the Sisters of St. Joseph. As their numbers increased,