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dragatius, a philosopher not otherwise known, Chrys- ostom followed also those of Libanius, at once the most famous orator of that period and the most tenacious adherent of the declining paganism of Rome. As we may see from the later writings of Chrysostom, he attained then considerable Greek scholarship and classical culture, which he by no means disowned in his later days. His alleged hostility to classical learn- ing is in reality but a misunderstanding of certain passages in which he defends the 0tXotro0(a of Chris- tianity against the myths of the heathen gods, of which the chief defenders in his time were the repre- sentatives and teachers of the a-orpla iW-rinKili (see A. Naegele in "Byzantin. Zeitschrift", XIII, 73-113; Idem, " Chrvsostomus und Libanius" in Xpv<roa-TofuKi., I, Rome, I'JOS, 81-142).

(2) Chrysostom as Lector and Monk. — It was a very decisive turning-point in the life of Chrysostom when he met one day (about 367) the bishop Meletius. The earnest, mild, and winning character of this man captivated Chrysostom in such a measure that he soon began to withdraw from classical and profane studies and to devote himself to an ascetic and religious life. He studied Holy Scripture and frequented the ser- mons of Meletius. About three years later he received Holy Baptism and was ordained lector. But the young cleric, seized by the desire of a more perfect life, soon afterwards entered one of the ascetic so- cieties near Antioch, which was under the spiritual direction of Carterius and especially of the famous Diodorus, later Bishop of Tarsus (see Palladius, "Dialogus", v; Sozomenus, "Hist, eccles.", VIII, 2). Prayer, manual labour, and the study of Holy Scrip- ture wore his chief occupations, and we may safely suppose that his first literary works date from this time, for nearly all his earlier writings deal with ascetic and monastic subjects [cf. below Chrysostom's writings: (1) "Opuscula"]. Four years later, Chrys- ostom resolved to live as an anchorite in one of the caves near .4ntioch. He remained there two years, but then, as his health was quite ruined by indiscreet watchings and fastings in frost and cold, he prudently returned to .\ntioch to regain his health, and resumed his office as lector in the church.

(3) Chri/sostom as Deacon and Priest at Antioch. — As the sources of the life of Chrysostom give an incom- plete chronology, we can but approximately determine the dates for this Antiochene period. Very probably in the beginning of 381 Meletius made him deacon, just before his own departure to Constantinople, where he died as president of the Second CEcumeni- cal Council. The successor of Meletius was Flavian (concerning who.se succession see F. Cavallera, "Le Schismed'Antioche", Paris, 1905). Ties of sympathy and friendship connected Chrysostom with his new bishop. As deacon he had to assist at the liturgical functions, to look after the sick and poor, and was probably charged also in some degree with teaching the catechumens. At the same time he continued his literary work, and we may suppose that he composed his most famous book, " On the Priesthood ", towards the end of this period (c. 386; see Socrates, "Hist, eccl.", VI, 3), or at the latest in the beginning of his priesthood (c. 387, as Nairn with good reasons puts it, in his edition of " De Sacerd.", xu-xv). There may be some doubt if it was occasioned by a real historical fact, viz., that Chrysostom and his friend Basil were requested to accept bishoprics (c. 372). .\11 the ear- liest Greek biographers seem not to have taken it in that sense. In the year 386 Chrysostom was ordained priest by Flavian, and from that year dates his real impor- tance in ecclesiastical history. His chief task during the next twelve years was that of preaching, which he had to exercise either instead of or wit h Bishop Flavian. But no doubt the larger part of the popular religious instruction and education devolved upon him. The earliest notable occasion which showed his power of

speaking and his great authority was the Lent of 387, when he delivered his sermons " On the Statues" (P. G., XLVIII, 15 sqq.). The people of Antioch, ex- cited by the levy of new taxes, had thrown down the statues of Emperor Theodosius. In the panic and fear of punishment which followed, Chrysostom delivered a series of twenty or twenty- one (the nineteenth is probably not authentic) sermons, full of vigour, consolatory, exhortative, tranquillizing, until Flavian, the bishop, brought back from Constantinople the emperor's pardon. But the usual preaching of Chrys- ostom consisted in consecutive explanations of Holy Scripture. To that custom, unhappily no longer in use, we owe his famous and magnificent commentaries.

St J H I 111 i> PaintiQK by Sebabtiino del P: Church of ban (jiovaniii Crisost

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which offer us such an inexhaustible treasure of dog- matic, moral, and historical knowledge of the transi- tion from the fourth to the fifth century. These years, 386-98, were the period of the greatest theo- logical productivity of Chrysostom, a period which alone would have assured him for ever a place among the first Doctors of the Church. A sign of this may be seen in the fact that in the year 392 St. Jerome already accorded to the preacher of Antioch a place among his Viri iUnstres ("De Viris ill.", 129, in P. L., XXIII, 754), referring expressly to the great and successful activity of Chrysostom as a theological ^vriter. From this same fact we may infer that during this time his fame had spread far beyond the limits of Antioch, and that he was well known in the Byzantine Empire, especially in the capital.

(4) SI. Chrysostom as Bishop of Constantinople. — In the ordinary course of things Chrysostom might have become the successor of Flavian at .\ntioch. But on 27 September, 397, Nectarius, Bishop of Constanti- nople, died. There was a general rivalry in the capital, openly or in secret, for the vacant see. .\fter some months it was known, to the great disappointment of the competitors, that Emperor Arcaiiius, at the sug- gestion of his minister Eutropius, had sent to the Prefect of Antioch to call John Chrysostom out of the