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JOHN

ment of the Church. Amid the cares of the papacy John found time for liis scientific studies, which were more congenial to him tlian the business of the Curia. To secure the necessary quiet for these studies, he had an apartment added to the papal palace at Viterbo, to which he could retire when he wished to work uudis- disturbed. On 14 May, 1277, while the pope was alone in this apartment, it collapsed; John was buried mider the ruins, and died on 20 May in consequence of the serious injuries he had received. Soon after the death of this scholarly pope, various rumours were circulated, based upon his great medical learning; he was even accused of dealing in the magic arts. A few monastic chroniclers, seeing in him an enemy, contributed to these baseless tales, and thus an undeser\'ed stigma was cast upon the memory of John XXI.

GuiRAVD AND Cadieh. Lcs ReQistres de Grcgoire X et de Jean XXI (Paris, 1892-8): Potthast, Reaesla Rom. Pont.. II, 1710 sqq. ; Kuhler. Vollstdndige Nachricht von Papst Johann XXI (Gottingen. 1760); Stapper, Papsl Johannes XXI in Kirchcn- gesch. Studien. IV (Munster, 1899). 4: Idem, Die Summrn logi- cates des Petrus Hispanws und ihr Verhdltnis zu Michael Psellus in Festschrift des deutschcn Campo santo in Rom (Freiburg, 1897). 130-8; Gottlob, Die piip-^tlichen Kreuizugsteuern des tS Jahrhunderts (Heiligenstadt, 1892); Neuburger and Parel, Handbuch der Gesch.der Medexin, I (Jena. 1902 1. 682, doubt his authorship of the Thesaurus Pauperum. For his worlv on the diseases of the eye. Liber de Oculo, see Petella, Les cotinais- sances philosophiques d'un medecin philosophe devenu pape in Janus, II (Amsterdam. 1897-98), 405-20, 570-96. The Liher de oculo was first edited, with a German version, by Berger (Munich, 1899).

J. P. KiRSCH.

John XXn, Pope (Jacques d'Euse), b. at Cahors in 1249; enthroned oSeptember, 1316; d. at Avignon, 4 December, 1334. He received his early education from the Dominicans in his native town, and later studied theology and law at Montpellier and Paris. He then taught both canonand civil law at Toulou,se and Cahors, came into close relations with Charles II of Naples, and on his recommendation was made Bishop of Frejus in 1300. In 1309 he was appointed chiinccllor of Charles II, and in 1310 was transferred to the See of Avignon. He delivered legal opinions favourable to the suppres- sion of the Templars, but he also defended Boniface VIII and the Bull " Unam Sauctam". On 23 Decem- ber, 1312, Clement V made him Cardinal-Bishop of Porto. After the death of Clement V (20 April, 1314) the Holy See was vacant for two years and three and a half months. The cardinals assembled in Carpentras for the election of a pope were divided into two violent factions, and could come to no agreement. The elec- toral college was compo.sed of eight Italian cartlinals, ten from Ciascony, three from Provence, and three from other parts of France. After many weeks of unprofitable discussion as to where the conclave should be held, the electoral assembly was entirely dissolved. Ineffectual were the efforts of several princes to induce the cardinals to undertake an election: neither party would yield. After his coronation Philip V of France was finally able to assemble a conclave of twenty-three cardinals in the Dominican monastery at Lyons on 26 June, 1316, and on 7 August, Jacques, Cardinal-Bishop of Porto, was chosen pope. After his coronation at Lyons on 5 Septeml^er as Jolm XXII, the pope set out for Avignon, where he fixed his residence.

His vast correspondence shows that John XXII followed closely the political and religious movements in all countries, and sought on even,' possible occasion the advancement of ecclesiastical interests. Nor was he less insistent than his predecessors on the supreme influence of the papacy in political matters. For this reason he found himself involved in grievous disputes which lasted throughout the greater portion of his pontificate. Great difficulties were also raised for the pope by the controversies among the Franciscans, which Clement V had triefl in vain to settle. .A number of Franci-scans, the so-called "Spirituals", or "Frati- celli", adherents of the most rigorous views, refused to

submit to that pope's decision, and after the deaths of Clement V and Gonzalvez, General of the Minorites, they rebelled, especially in the South of France and in Italy, declaring that the pope had no power to dis- pense them from their rule, since this was nothing other than the Gospel. They then proceeded to drive the Conventuals from their houses, and take possession of the same, thereby causing scandal and much dis- order. The new general, Michael of Cesena, appealed to John, who in 1317 ordered the refractory friars to submit to their superiors, and causeti the doctrines and opinions of the Spirituals to be investigated. On 23 January, 1318, many of their doctrines were de- clared erroneous. Those who refused to yield were treated as heretics: many were burned at the stake, and some escaped to Sicily.

These troubles among the Franciscans were in- creased by the quarrel about evangelical poverty which broke out among the Conventuals themselves. The general chapter of Perugia, through their general, Michael of (^'esena, and other learned men of the order (including William Occam), defended the opinion of Berenger Talon, that Christ and His Apostles had no possessions either individually or in common. In 1322 Pope John declared this statement null and void, and in 1323 denounced as heretical the assertion that Christ and the Apostles had no possessions either in- dividually or in common, and could not even legiti- mately dispose of what they had for personal use. Not only the Spirituals, but also the adherents of Michael of Cesena and William Occam, protested against this decree, whereupon in 1324 the pope issued a new Bull, confirming his former decision, setting aside all objections to it, and declaring tho.se who op- posed this decision heretics and enemies of the Church. Summoned to appear at Avignon, Michael of Cesena obeyed the summons, but refused to yield and, when threatened with imprisonment, sought .safety in flight. Leaving .\\'ignon on 25 May. 1328, and accompanied by William Occam and Bonagratia di Bergamo, he be- took himself to Louis of Bavaria for protection.

Political conditions in Germany and Italy moved the pope to assert over the latter far-reaching political claims, and similarly with regard to the Cierman Crown, because of the latter's union with the imperial office. On this score a violent quarrel broke out between the pope and King Louis of Bavaria. During the vacancy that followed the death of Clement V, there had arisen a disputed election for the throne of Germany, Louis of Bavaria having been crowned at Aachen, and Fred- erick of Austria at Bonn (25 Nov., 1314). The electors of both candidates wrote to the future pope to obtain recognition of their choice, and also to seek for him imperial coronation. On the day of his coronation (5 Sept., 1315) John wrote to both Louis and Frederick and also to the other Cierman princes, admonishing them to settle their disputes amicably. As there was no universally acknowledged German king, and the pope had not given preference to either candidate, neither could hope to exercise imperial authority. Nevertheless, in 1315 Louis appointed Jean de Bel- mont imperial \-icar for Italy, and at the same time supported Galeazzo Visconti of Milan, then in open opposition to the pope. The latter maintained (13 March, 1317) that, by reason of the vacancy of the Roman Empire, all imperial jurisdiction rested with the pope, and, following the example of his prede- cessor Clement \, he appointed King Robert of Sicily imperial vicar for Italy (July, 1317). On 28 Septem- ber, 1322, Louis of Bavaria informed the pope that he had overcome his opponent, Frederick of Austria, upon which John WTote him a friendly letter.

Loiiis. however, took no further steps to effect a reconciliation with the pope. On the contrary, he supported in their oppo.sition to the papal legates the excomnninicated Visconti of Milan and the Italian Ghibellines, acted as legitimate emperor, and pro-