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JOHN

to death, seized the authority for himself. The three following popes were indebted to him for their eleva- tion, and were made to feel his supremacy. A llo- man, Sicco, was first elected, and consecrated on 13 June as John XVII, but died on b November. Before taking orders he had been married, and had three sons who also became ecclesiastics. Concerning his activ- ities during the few months of his pontificate nothing has come down to us.

Liber Poniif., ed. Duchesne, II, 265; Jaffe, Regesta, I (2nd ed.), 501; Langen, Gesch. der ram. Kirchc, III, 401.

J. P. KiRSCH.

John XVIII (XIX), Pope, successor of John XVII, consecrated Christmas, 1003; d. June, 1009. He was the son of a Roman priest named Leo, and, before his elevation to the papacy, his name was Phasianus. He, too, owed his elevation to the influence of Cres- centius. The accounts of his pontificate consist al- most exclusively of details of ecclesiastical administra- tion. He confirmed the possessions and privileges of several churches and convents; sanctioned different gifts to religious institutions; conferred ecclesiastical privileges on the re-estabUshed See of Merseburg; gave his consent at the Roman Synod of June, 1007, to the estalilishment of the See of ISamberg, founded and en- dowed by the German king, Henry 11; and conferred the pallium on .-Vrchbishops Meingaudus of Trier and Elphege of Canterbury. John XVIII energetically opposed the pretensions of Archbishop Letericus of Sens and Bishop Fulco of Orleans, who refused to al- low the Abbot of Fleury, Goslin, to make use of the privileges granted him by Rome, and tried to make him burn the papal charters. The pope complained of this to the emperor, and called both bishops to his tribunal under threat of ecclesiastical censures for the entire kingdom. In Constantinople he was recognized as Bishop of Rome. His epitaph relates that he sub- dued the Cireeks and dislodged schism. His name appears on the diptychs of the Byzantine Church. According to one catalogue of popes, he died as a monk at St. Paul's near Rome in June, 1009.

Liber Pontificalia, ed. Duchesne, II, 266: Watterich, Vilce Romanorum Pontifirum. I. 89, 699 sq.: Jaffe, Renesta, I (2nd ed.), 501-3; Langen, Gesch. der rum. Kirche, III, 401-3.

J. P. KlRlSCH.

John XIX (XX), Pope, enthroned in 1024; d. 1032. After the death of the last patricius of the House of Crescentius, the counts of Tusculum seized the authority in Rome, a scion of this family was raised to the papal throne as Benedict VIII (q. v.), while his brother, Romanus, exercised the temporal power in the city as consul and senator. After Bene- dict's death Romanus, though a lajTnan, was elected pope between 12 .\pril and 10 May, 1024, immediately after which he received all the orders in succession, took the name of John, and sought by lavish expendi- ture to win the Romans to his cause. Soon after his elevation the Byzantine Emperor, Basil II, sent am- bassadors to Rome to request in his name that the pope would recognize the title of oecumenical patri- arch, which the patriarchs of Byzantium had assumed, thus sanctioning the latter's headship of all the Orien- tal Churches. Rich presents brought by the envoys were intended to win over the pope, and indeed he seemed not disinclined to accede to the Byzantine wishes. Though the negotiations were kept secret the affair became public, and roused to action the reli- giously minded circles, especially the promoters of ecclesiastical reform in Italy and France. Public opinion compelled the pope to refuse the Byzantine requests and gifts, whereupon Patriarch Eustachius of Constantinople caused the pope's name to be erased from the diptychs of his churches. John invited the celebrated musician, Guido of Arezzo, to visit Rome and explain the musical notation invented by him. In Germany, after the death of Henry II (1.'^ July, 1024), Conrad the Salian was elected king, and was

invited by the pope and also by Archbishop Heribert of Milan, to come to Italy. In 1020 he crossed the Alps, received the iron crown of Lombardy, and proceeiled to Rome, where on 26 March, 1027, he was crowned emperor. Two kings, Rudolph of Burgundy and Canute of Demnark and England, took part in this journey to Rome.

On b April a great synod was held in the Lateran basilica, where the dispute between the Patriarchs of Aquileia and Grado was deciilcd, through the em- peror's influence, in favour of the former. Poppo of Aquileia was to be sole patriarch, with the Bishop of Grado under his jurisdiction. RIoreover, the Patri- arch of Aquileia was to take precedence over all the Italian bishops. Two years later (1029) John XIX revoked this decision, and at a new synod restored to the Patriarch of Grado all his former privileges. King Canute of Denmark and England obtained from the pope a promise that his English and Danish subjects should not be annoyed by customs duties on their way to Italy and Rome, and that the archbishops of his kingdom should not be so heavily taxed for the be- stowal of the pallium. John granted the Bishop of Silva Candida, near Rome, a special privilege to say Mass in St. Peter's on certain days. A dispute regarding precedence between the Archbishops of Milan and Ravenna was settled by the pope in favour of the former. He took the Abbey of Cluny under his protection, and renewed its privileges in spite of the protests of Goslin, Bishop of Macon; at the same time he rebuked Abbot Odilo of Cluny for not accepting the See of Lyons. The feast of St. Martial, reputed disci- ple of the Apostles and founder of the church of Li- moges, was raised by John to the rank of the feast of an Apostle. In the case of certain French Ijishops the pope maintained the rights of the Holy See. He seems to have been the first pope to grant an indul- gence in return for alms bestowed. He died towards the end of 1032, probably on 6 November.

Liber Pontificalis.ed. Duchesne, II. 269: .1 u fk./i'.wvM. I(2nd ed ), 514-9; Watterich, T''ii(E/?om.Po/// I, -n,7n^ il 1,\-,,,in-. Gesch. der rom. Kirche, III, US sqn.: II ii' A.

IV (2nded.).683sqq.; Hergenrothei, / III I: ii-i,,,

1869), 729 sq.; Hartmann in Millin-'t^.!' " /> ' '.' /vr

os(err. Gesch., XV (1894). 488: Recmont, Gesch. der SIndt Rom.; Gregorovius. Gesch. der Stadt Rom. Concerning all the popes from John X to John XIX see Mann, Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages (London, 1902).

J. P. KiRSCH.

John XX. See John XXI, Pope.

John XXI (XX), Pope, b. at Lisbon between 1210 and 1220; enthroned, 1276; d. at Viterbo, 20 May, 1277. The son of one Julianus, he was baptized Peter, and was known as Petrus Juliani or Petrus Hispanus. After his earlier studies in the cathedral school at Lisbon, he entered the University of Paris and at- tended lectures on dialectics, logic, and, more particu- larly, those on Aristotelean physics and metaphysics then being given by Albertus Magnus. The natural philosophy of .\ristotle had a special attraction for Peter. He zealously pursued the study of medicine, and also that of theology, attaching himself espe- cially to the Minorite magisler, John of Parma. On completing his studies, he was called in 1247 as professor of medicine to the University of Sienna, which was at that time being greatly enlarged. Here he WTote his "Summulse logicales", for almost three hundred years the favourite textbook on logic. Stapper's investigations (see below) have now estab- lished beyond question the authorship of this work. In the fifteenth century the "Summuls" was trans- lated into Greek by George Scholarius, and was also translated into other languages. In content and form the book is based on the method current at the LTni- versity of Paris, and on the compendium of William Shyreswood, Peter's professor there. While teaching at Siena, he also made a collection of medical pre- scriptions.