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JAPAN

practised. But after the introduction of Buddhism it fell into disfavour and did not recover until the seven- teenth century when leyasu caused the Chinese clas- sics to be printed for the first time. Henceforth, being taught by learned masters such as Fujiwara Seikwa, Hayashi Doshun, etc., it became the code of the Sam- urai and exercised a profound influence in Japanese societj' during the shogunate of the Tokugawa. After the Restoration the European .system of public instruc- tion was adopted, Confucianism was again abandoned, as well as the Chinese classics which had been the basis of teaching for 250 years. But it cannot be denied that the origin of a number of the ideas still in favour among the upper classes may be traced to Confucianism.

Bufthido (Way of the Samurai, Knighthood). — The principles of loyalty and honour which the Samurai are obliged to obey are called Bushido. This code has borrowed from Buddhism stoical endurance, scorn of danger and death, from Shintoisra the religious ven- eration of fatherland and sovereign, from Confucian- ism a certain literary and artistic culture and the social ethics called "the five relations of men among themselves " {go rin). From this compound results the code of the perfect knight, which may be summed up in three sayings: the Samurai has not two words; he does not serve two masters ; he gives his blood for duty. The Bushido was born with the nation, it developed by degrees as the warrior class grew in influence, and it reached its most complete expansion at the begin- ning of the shogunate of the Tokugawa. Then a change took place ; hitherto illiterate and even glorying in his ignorance, the Samurai turned to literary cul- ture and neglected the military calling; decadence fol- lowed, and at the Restoration he had lost his ancient prestige. To-day the Samurai no longer form a class apart, but the spirit and influence of the Bushido are more or less preserved among the people.

Cemeteries. — There are two kinds of cemeteries, those connected with the temples and the public cem- eteries, which belong to the municipalities. In the first the " parishioners " of the temples have the right to be interred, in the second all persons without distinction of class or religion. The local administration grants per- mission to establish new cemeteries, to abolish or to change the old, etc., but their inspection and control belong to the police. Every cemetery must have a superintendent (Kanrisha), without whose permission no burial may take place. It is forbidden to bury the dead anywhere save in the cemeteries. Formerly it was necessary to enli.st the services of a Shintoist or Buddhist priest (bonze or kannmhi) for every burial, but this law was abolished in 1884, and the presence of a priest is no longer necessary. If he is summoned he should perform the ceremony according to the rite of his religion. The formalities to be fulfilled are: the ob- taining of a physician's certificate proving the death, the presentation of this certificate to the civil official, and the securing from the police authorization for burial. Interment may only take place twenty-four hours after the death; the grave must be six feet deep. Those who neglect to bury a dead person or who pro- fane a tomb are liable to fine and imprisonment. Cemeteries are exempt from taxation.

Cremation is permitted in Japan. It takes place in a special oven called a Kwasoba. Persons dying of a contagious disease must be cremated, others being left free. As regards cemeteries and burials, the Christian communities are subject to the same laws and enjoy the same advantages as the pagan sects. They are al- lowed to have a separate cemetery, which most of them have. As to foreigners, according to Article ii of the treaty CDiicluded with the different powers, "Euro- peans dying in Japan enjoy the right to be buried ac- cording to tlieir religious cvistoms in conveniently lo- cated cemeteries, which should l)e estalilislied, in case they do not exist, and cirefully maintained".

Public AssisTANci;.— Regulations concerning public

relief were promulgated in 1899. They stipulated that each department should organize a minimum fund of 560,000 yen for relief in case of accidents (floods, ty- phoons, earthquakes, etc.). The Government in turn pledged itself to give yearly for ten j'ears a sum pro- portionate to that collected in the departments. Be- sides this a sum is reserved each year to assist the poor and foundlings. At the end of March, 1908, the acci- dent fund equalled a sum of 34,884,370 yen. Number of personsassisted in 1907, 13,894; number of children helped, 2086; cost, 47,016 yen.

Benevolent Organizations. — The chief of these are: (1) the Tokio yoikv-in (asylum for the infirm and orphans), an establishment founded in 1872; number of infirm and orphans sheltered in 1907, 3376; re- ceipts, 121,875 yen; expenses, 112,227 yen; funds re- maining at end of year, 378,908 yen; (2) the Tokio Sugamo byo-in (insane asylum), founded in 1879; phy- sicians, 9; keepers, 145; inmates, 634; receipts, 30,700 yen; expenses, 78,830 yen; (3) the Tokio jikei byo-in (charity hospital), founded in 1182; sick persons re- ceived at the hospital in 1907, 768; sick persons treated outside by the hospital, 39,962; (4) Fukuden- kai Ikuji-in (orphanage), a private establishment; orphans assisted, 150; (5) Tokio Kankwai-in (house of correction), private establishment, founded in 1885; children received, 69. To these establishments, the only ones mentioned in the official statistics, must be added about 100 other charitable organizations (or- phanages, asylums, leper hospitals, infant asylums, houses of refuge for those discharged from prison, etc.), founded by private citizens, the Buddhist sects. Cath- olic and Protestant missions. The Catholic and Prot- estant missionaries have been the promoters of these benevolent works in Japan, the Buddhists having merely followed their example. The last-named have founded in all 15 orphanages, 3 schools, and 8 asylums or hospitals. The Shintoists have not a single benevo- lent work to their credit.

Red Cross Society. — In 1877, during the civil war of Satsuma, a society was founded in Japan on the model of the Red Cross under the name of Hakuai- sha (philanthropic society). In 1886, Japan having given its adhesion to the convention of Geneva, the philanthropic society changed its name to that of the Red Cross of Japan (Nihon sekijujisha). The Red Cross Society is under the patronage of the imperial household which gives to the work an annual contri- bution of 20,000 yen. Besides this the empress gives 5000 yen to the Red C!ross hospital. The Society has liuilt two hospital-ships for use in time of war. Every Japanese or foreigner who gives yearly from three to twelve yen, or twenty-five yen at a time, is an ordinary member of the Red Cross; anyone who gives 200 yen is a special member, and anyone who gives 1000 yen is an honorary member. Number of ordinary members, 1257; special members, 10,139; honorary members, 42; correspondents, 8090. At the beginning of 1908 the Red Cross service was composed as follows: staff managers, 5; physicians, 291; dispensers, 16; em- ployes, 90; head-nurses, 262; nurses, 2071; pupil- nurses, 691; litter-bearers, 132; funds, 9,755,417 yen. Justin B.u.lette.

Christianity in Japan. — CalholiriHtn. — On 15 Au- gust, 1549, St. Francis Xavier arrived in Japan, at the port of Kagoshima in Kiusiu, with two companions and three neophytes. By the boldness of his preach- ing, his sanctity, and his miracles, he renewed the marvels of the Apostolic age. He preached at Iliratlo, Yamaguchi, Bungo, and Fimai, but he was unable to see the emperor or enter Miako (Kyoto). He set out for China on 20 November, 1551. In .Japan there were then 3000 faithful, the feudal regime being favourable to cvangelizal ion. Ordinarily, when a prince was con- verted a portion of his subjects followed him. The celebrated Nobunaga (1565), the terrible enemy of the