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nobility (Shin-Kwazoku). Graduated titles were cre- ated in 1SS4 for these nobles of various degrees, in Japanese Ko, Ko, Haku, Ski, and Dan, corresponding to duke, marquess, count, viscount, and baron. No- bility is hereditary, and on 31 March, 1908, this class con.-isted of 15 dukes (Ko), 36 marquesses (Ko), 100 counts (Haku), 375 viscounts (Shi), and 376 barons (Dan), that is 902 families, comprising 4600 members, which form the Japanese aristocracy.

Rank at Court. — Besides the title of nobility there are purely honorary dignities forming a sort of court hierarchy. This hierarchy was established in Japan in the reign of the Empress Suiko (a. d. 603). In 682 the number of degrees was raised to forty -eight; in 702 it was fixed at thirty. At the Restoration this hierarchy was retained but very much simplified. At present there are eight degrees, each, except the first, being divided into two, which gives a total of fifteen. These titles or dignities (I-Kai or Kurai) are awarded to nobles, to functionaries of high rank, or to citizens who, while not belonging to these classes, have ren- dered signal services to the nation. These dignities carry with them certain rights, e. g. that of assisting at the emperor's reception on a certain day of the year. They are conferred only on Japanese. The number of persons honoured with these titles was in 1907, .50,906, among them 113 women.

Grades of Civil F unctionaries a7id M ilitarii Officials. — The former are called Bunkwan and the latter Bukwan. Both are divided into four classes, Sliinnin, Chokunin, Sonin, and Hannin. The Shinnin, who form the highest class, receive their investiture from the hands of the emperor himself. The decree of promotion bears the seal of the empire and is countersigned by the president of the council. The Chokunin are ap- pointed by a decree of the emperor, bearing the seal of the empire. The Sonin are appointed by the cabinet on presentation by the ministers. The Hannin are appointed by their respective ministers. Civil and military officials of the rank of Shinnin, 46; civil offi- cials of the rank of Chokunin, 370; Sonin, 7015; Hannin, 51.952. Army and navy: all the generals and admirals have the rank of Chokunin; all the other officers have that of Sonin, and all non-commissioned officers that of Hannin. For the number see sub- titles Army; Nary. The Shinnin number 46 civil or military officials. The statistics for the Chokunin make no distinction between ci\'il and military officials for this exalted degree only.

Constitution' of the Empire. — On his accession to the throne the emperor promised to establish a Na- tional Assembly for the purpose of discussing the affairs of the country. Although proceeding from the free will of the sovereign, the project of a Constitution, before being put into execution, encountered many obstacles an<l provoked violent contests between the Government and the democratic party. The various phases of those conflicts may be summarized as fol- lows: In 1873 Itagaki and his followers addressed a petition to the Government in which they called upon it to carry out the sovereign's wishes, and in 1880 a campaign was organized tliroughout the country for the promotion of the rights of the people. In 1S81 Itagaki and his followers organized the Liberal Party and vigorously urged forward the movement in favour of the establishment of a parliament. In the same year the emperor promised to promulgate the Constitution within ten years. Finally on 11 Febru- ary, 18S9, the Constitution was promulgated and the diet was convoked in November of the next year.

Prerogatives of the Emperor.— The chief rights ac- corded to the emperor by the Constitution are: to convoke, open, close, and suspend the Parliament, to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies; to issue ordi- nances having the force of law, under urgent circum- stances when the diet is not sitting and on condition that they be submitted to it in the next session, to

give orders for the execution of the laws, to maintain peace and promote the welfare of the people, to assume command of the forces of sea and land and to regulate the organization of both these services, lo declare war, make peace, conclude treaties, proclaim a state of siege, to grant titles of nobility, rank at court, decora- tions, and other honorary titles, to declare amnesty, to commute penalties, and to rehaljilitate.

Rights of the People. — The rights granted to the people by the Constitution are as follows; Every Japanese subject without distinction of class may be promoted to any civil or military rank or public office. No Japanese subject may be arrested, held, or pun- ished except according to law. Except in cases pro- vided for by law, the dwelling of every Japanese is in- violable and is not subject to any domiciliary visit. Secrecy of mailed letters and the rights of property are inviolable. The Constitution further grants lib- erty of religious belief in all that is not prejudicial to peace and order and the duties of a subject, freedom of speech, of the press, of public assembly, of associa- tion, and the right to present petitions in a respectful manner.

Government. — For the management of state affairs the emperor employs several ministers, at the present time nine in number, viz. ministers of foreign affairs, of the interior, of justice, of finance, of war, of the navy, of public instruction, of agriculture and com- merce, and of communications.

Privy Council (Sumilsti-in). — The emperor is also assisted by a privy council, created in 1SS8 and com- posed of a president, a vice-president, and fifteen members, chosen from among the highest function- aries at least forty years of age. The president of the cabinet and all the members are councillors ex officio. The privy council gives its opinion concerning ques- tions submitted by the emperor, but is not entitled to make proposals, to decide as last resort, nor to exercise executive power. It gives advice with regard to treaties to be concluded with other powers, in urgent cases, in quarrels which may arise between the Govern- ment and the Chambers, in fine in all circumstances in which the supreme power is expected to intervene.

Parliament. — The emperor shares the legislative power with two large political bodies, the Chamber of Peers and the Chamber of Deputies. The Chamber of Peers enjoys certain privileges. The emperor may suspend but not dissolve it. The duration of the commission of the peers is seven years, that of the deputies four years. The peers, being appointed by the emperor or by right of birth, are such for life. .\11 the deputies must be re-elected every four years. The chambers discuss and vote on projected laws, the budget, taxes, etc., but their decisions do not go into effect till they have received the sanction of tfie em- peror.

The Chamber of Peers is composed of the members of the imperial family, of all dukes and marquesses over twenty-five, of a certain number of counts, viscounts, and barons who have attained their twenty-fifth year and who are elected by their peers, of members aged at least thirty appointed for life by the emperor because of their services or learning, and lastly of forty-five members aged at least thirty, elected from among the fifteen most influential citizens of each district which returns them. Their election must be confirmed by the emperor. The number of these two categories must not exceed that of the members of the nobility. In 1908 the Chamber of Peers was composed as fol- lows: members of the imperial family, 13; dukes, 10; m.arquesses, 28: counts, 17; viscounts, 69; barons, 55; appointed for life by the emperor, 124; chosen from amongst the citizens pa^^ng the largest taxes, 45. Total, 361. In the upper chamber there is no politi- cal party properly so called; the peers are merely tlivided into groups, generally composed of members of the same class.