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 GUICCIARDINI

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GUICCIARDINI

troops of the Margravine Matilda. Gregory, escorted by Robert Guiscard, repaired to Salerno, where he re- newed his excommunication of Henry and Guibert. This was at the close of the year 1084.

The German episcopate stood divided. While bish- ops loyal to Gregory held a synod in Quedlinburg, at whichthey denounced and condemned the antipope, those who supported Henry approved at Mainz the deposition of Gregory and the elevation of Guibert (10S5). This conflict continued even after the death of the great Gregory (25 May, 10S5). during the entire reigns of whose succe.s.sors, Victor HI, Urban U. and Paschal II, Guibert figured as the antipope of Henry and his party. Victo"- III, who was elected after a prolonged vacancy caused by the critical position of the Church in Rome, was compelled, eight days after his coronation in St. Peter's (3 May, 1087), to fly from Rome before the partisans of Guibert. The latter were in turn assailed by the troops of Countess Matilda, and en- trenched themselves in the Pantheon. The succeeding pope. Urban II (1088-1099), was at one time master of Rome, but he was afterwards driven from the city by the adherents of Guibert, and sought refuge in Lower Italy and in France. In June, 1089, at a pseudo-synod held in Rome, the antipope de- clared invalid the decree of excommunication launched against Henry, and various charges were made against the supporters of the legiti- mate pope. Still, the years which followed brought to Urban ever-increasing pres- tige, while Henry IV's power and influence were more and more on the wane. The greater part of the city of Rome was captured by an army of crusaders under Count Hugh of Vermandois, brother of the King of IVance. The party of Guibert retained only the castle of Sant' An- gelo, and even this in 1098 fell into the hands of the "^ - papal champion. Guibert's

influence, after Henry IV's withdraw ul from Italy, was virtually confined to Ravenna and a few other districts of Northern Italy. He repaired to .\lbano after the accession of Paschal II (1099-1118), hoping again to become master of Rome, but he was com- pelled to withdraw. He reached Civita Castellana, where he died on S September, 1100. His followers, it is true, elected another antipope. Bishop Theodorus of S. Rufina, wlio. however, never held any real power. (Compare also the articles Gregory VII; Victor III; Urban II; and Paschal II.)

Librlli de lite Iriipcratorum et Ponlificum saer. XI et XIJ con- scripli in Man. C'-rm. hist. (3 vols.. Hanover. 1890-1.H97); Jaffk, Regesta Romanorum Pontif., 2nd ed., I, 649-55: Kohncke, W'ibcrl von Ravenna (Leipzig, 1888): Hefei.k. Konziliengeach., 2nd ed.. V, 20sqo.: Hergenrother and Kirsch. Kirchengench., 4th ed., II, 346 sqq.: rf. also the bibliography given under the articles mentioned above.

J. P. KlRSCH.

Guicciardini, Fr.\ncesco, historian and statesman : b. at Florence, 1483; d. there, 23 May, 1,540. His parents, Piero di Jacopo Guicciardini and Siniona Gianfigliazzi, belonged to ancient Florentine families, attached to the party of the Medici. Francesco's

early career was that of a succes.sful lawyer. He in- creased his aristocratic and Medicean connexions by his marriage with Maria Salviati (1508), whose family was bitterly opposed to the then dominant repubhcan regime. In 1511, though legally too young for the post, he was sent as Florentine ambassador to the King of Spain. During his absence, the Medici were restored in Florence. On his return (1514), he en- tered their service, from which he passed into that of the Church. Under Leo X lie governed Modena and Reggio with conspicuous success; and, in the confu- sion that followed the pope's death, he distinguished himself by his defence of Parma against the French (1521). He was influential with Clement VII in form- ing the anti-imperial League of Cognac (1526), and was lieutenant-general of the army that, through no fault of his, failed to prevent the .s;ick of Rome in 1527. For a wliile. Guicciardini kept on terms with the restored re])ulilican government of Florence; but, at the begin- ning of the siege, he joined the pope, and was declared a rebel by the democratic party. On the surrender of Florence to the papal and imperial armies, he returned to the city (Sept., 1530), was made a member of the Eight (OUo di prntica), and became one of the chief agents in the subjugation of the state to tlie ^jedicean rule. From .lune, 1531, to September, 1534. he ruled Bologna as papal vice-legate. Return- ing to Florence on the death of Clement VII, he sup- jiorted the tjTanny of .'Mes- sandro de' Medici. After the Miunler of .\lessandro, he played the chief part in se- curing the succession of Cosimo de' Medici (1537); lint fell into disfavour when he attempted to check the new duke's absolutism by giving the government an oligarchical complexion. Henceforth, although until his death Guicciardini held v;iri(>us j)ublic othces in Flor- ence, his influence was at an tiiil. IIm- h-vs II n.aiiiiag years of his life were mainly passed in retirement, in his villa at .\rcetri, devoting his enforced leisure to the composition of his great "Storia d'ltalia".

The "Storia d'ltalia" embraces the whole period from the deatli of Lorenzo de'Medici in 1492 to that of Clement \TI in 1534, that most disastrous epoch in Italian history which witnessed the loss of the nation's independence. Its vast accumulation of details does not obscure the main lines of the terrible story. The author writes as an eyewitness who has himself taken part in the scenes he describes; a keen observer, with no delusions, no enthusiasms, and little hope for the future; one above all intent upon tracing the motives of men's actions — almost invariably, in his opinion, bad or unworthy. His minor works, such as the earlier "Storia Fiorentina" (1509) and the dialogue "Del Reggimento di Firenze" (circa 1527), are less artificial in style. The"Ricordi politicie civili " (1530) reveal much of the author's character and beliefs. While mistrusting all patriotism, and regarding the profession of nol)le motives as a mere cloak for per- sonal ends, he declares that the three things he most

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