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INDIANS

Nueva Historia General de la Am. Septentrional (Madrid, 1746); Idem. Idea de una nueva hist, general de la Ameriea Septentrional (Aztec hieroglyphs and bibliography) (Madrid, 1746); Bow- ditch, tr. and ed., Mexican and Central Am. Antiquities (from German of Seler, Forstemann, Schei.lhas, Sapper, and DiESELDORFF in But. Bur. Am. Eth. (Washington, 1904); Brassedr de Bourbodrg, Nations civilisces du Mexique et de I'Amerique Centrale (Pre-Columbian) (4 vols., Paris, 1857); Idem, CoU. de documents dans les langues indigines (Mexico. Central America, and Haiti, including Popol. Vuh of Quiches) (4 vols., Paris, 1861-68) ; Carrillo y Ancona, Historia antigua de Yucatan (1868; 2nd ed., Mdrida. 1883): Clavigero. Historia antica del Messico (Cesena, 1780). tr. Cullen, Hist, of Mexico (2 vols.. London, 1787); Idem. Storia della California (2 vols., Venice. 1789; tr. Sp. Mexico. 1852); DvPAlx, Antiquitcs Mexi- caines (2 vols.. Paris. 1834); Engelhardt. Franciscans in California (Harbor Springs. Mich., 1897); Fancourt, Hist, of Yucatan (London, 1854); Fewkes, Aborigines of Porto Rico, in Twentg-fiflh Kept. Bur. Am. Eth. (Washington, 1907); Idem, Antiquities of Eastern Mexico, ibid.; Forstemann. Commentary on the Dresden Maya MS. (Orig. Ger., Peabody Mus., Cam- bridge, 1906); also see BowDlTCH : Gomkha, Historia general de las Indias (Saragossa. 1554); Idem. Hist, de las Conquistas de Hernando Cortis (reprint) (2 vols.. Mexico. 1826); Hartman, ArchcEological Researches in Costa Rica (Carnegie Mus.. Pittsburg. 1907); Holmes. ArchiEolnqical Studies among the Ancient Cities of Mexico (Field Mus., 2 rpts., Chicago, 1895-97); Humboldt. Vues des Cordilleras (Paris. 1810). tr. Researches Con- cerning the Ancient Inhabitants of Am. (2 vols., London, 1814); Ixtlil.xochitl. Histoire des Chichmi'ques (tr. from Sp. MS.. 2 vols., Paris. 1840; also Sp. in Kingsborough. IX; Fr. in Ternau-X-Compans series); Kingsborough. Antiquities of Mexico (9 vols.. London, 18:11-48); Leon. Los Tarascos (,S pts.. Mexico. 1901-6); and numerous papers, chiefly in Anales del Museo Nacional; Lumholtz, Symbolism of the Huichol Ind^. in Am. Mus. Mem. (New York, 1900); Idem, Unknoum Mexico (2 vols.. New York. 1902); Maler. The Usumasintla Valley in Peabody Mus. Memoirs, II and IV (Cambridge, 1901-03-08); Martyr, Hist, of the West Indies (orig. Sp. ed.. 1504-30; tr., London, 1597); Mayer, Mexico: Aztec, Spanish and Republi- can (Hartford, 1S53): Mota Padilla, Conquista de la Nueva Galicia (Mexico, 1870): North, The Mother of California (San Francisco, New York, 1908) ; Nuttall. Fundamental Principles of Old and New World Civilization (Peabody Mus., Cambridge, 1901); Idem. Codex Nuttall (Peabody Mus., Cambridge, 1902); Idem, Book of Life of the Ancient Mexicans (2 vols., Univ. of Cal., Berkeley, 1903-09); Orozco y Berra, Gcoffra/ia de las Lenguas y Carta ctnofiriifira de Mt'xiro (Mexico, 1864); Pimen- TEL, Lenguas Indiarnos de Mixico (2 vols., Mexico, 1862H35; 3 vols., 1874-75); Phescott. Hist, of the Conquest of Mexico (3 vols.. New York and London. 1843); Ribas, Triumphos de Nuesira Santa Fe (Madrid. 1645): Sahagun. Historia General de Nueva Espana (1.529-1590) (3 vols.. Mexico. 1829); Seler. Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischcn Sprarh- undAlter- thums-Lunde (Berlin, 1902): Idem, Reisebricfe aus Mexiko (Ber- lin, 1889): Idem, Auf alter Wegen in Mexiko und Guatemala (Berlin, 1900) ; Idem, Codex Fejermry (Berlin, 1901 : tr., Berlin. 1901-02); Idbm, Codex Vaticanus (2 vols., Berlin, 1902): SauiER. Central America (2 vols.. New York, 1853); Idem. Nicaragua (New York. 1852); Idem. Original Documents and Relations (Guatemala etc.) (New York. 1860); Stephen. Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas and Yucatan (2 vols.. New York. 1841; 25 eds.); Idem. Incidents of Travel in Yucatan (2 vols.. New York. 184.3): Ternaux-Compans. Voyages, Relations et Memoires originaux etc. (20 vols.. Paris, 1837-40); Torque- MADA, Monorchia Indiana etc. (3 vols., Madrid, 1613; Barcia, ed., 3 vols., Madrid, 1723); Venegas, Noticia de la California (3 vols., Madrid. 1757; tr.. 2 vols.. London. 1759); Villagu- TiERRA Soto-Major. Couquista de la Provineia de el Itza (Mad- rid. 1701); Villa Se.vor y Sanchez. Theatro Americano (2 vols.. Mexico. 1746; Madrid. 1748); Ximene.s. Origen de los Indias {Guatemala) (Scherzer. ed.. Vienna, 1857); Y''oung. Residence on the Mosquito Shore (1839-41) (London, 1842). See also United States and South America.

SoiTTH Americ.\. — On the South American Conti- nent there existed prior to European occupation a chain of highly developed native civilizations extend- ing along the Andean Plateau from the Isthmus south- ward into Chile, while all the rest — including the narrow coast strip along the Pacific and the great forests and pampas stretching eastward to the Atlan- tic — were occupied by petty tribes of primitive culture status, from the sedentary agriculturists of the middle Orinoco and the Parand, to the rude savages of Tierra del Fuego.

Among the civilized nations, in order from north to south, were the Muysca or Chibcha of Colombia, the Yunca and Quichua of Peru, and the somewhat proljlematic Aymara of the Peru-Bolivia frontier. Of these the most populous, most important, and best known were the Quichua, whose great Empire of Peru, with its capital at Cuzco, dominated the whole region west of the great Cordillera from the Chibcha territory to about the 3.5th parallel in Chile, with outlying colonies among the Calchaqui of Cata-

marca, east of the Andes chain. Their ruling caste, the Incas, who claimed descent from the sun and to whom belonged the emperors and the nobility, appear to have been originally the nucleus tribe of the empire, which in the course of centuries had gradually ab- sorbed and assimilated almost all the triljes of cognate Quichuan .stock, together with a number of other tribes and nations of alien stocks and of greater or less degree of culture. Unlike the Aztec, who held the subjected tribes only by superior force, the Inca emperors pursiied a systematic policy of removal and colonization with reference to the conquered trilies under which tribal differences rapidly disappeared, and the new subjects were completely fused into the botly of the empire. The government, while nearly ab.solute, was mild and paternal, looking carefully after the welfare of every class and citizen, defining their privileges and duties, and holding each to a strict account in its contrilnition to the general wel- fare. The religion partook of the same benevolent character, having none of the bloody sacrificial and cannibalistic rites of the Aztec. The material civil- ization was probably the most advanced in aboriginal America, agriculture, pottery-making, weaving, and metal-working in gold and bronze being at their highest, while the stupendous temples, fortresses, and roads, in massive cut stone, were without parallel on the Continent and still defy the centuries. In sculptural art, however, they were behintl the Aztec, Maya, and other northern nations, and in anything literary had not progressed beyontl a simple system by means of quijyus or knotted cords. Among the best accounts of the Inca civilization is that con- tained in Prescott's "Conquest of Peru", a description which will apply with approximate correctness to the others of the Andean region. The Chibcha race was virtually exterminated by the Spanish conquerors in their thirst for gold, but in Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia the descendants of the old civilized nations still con- stitute the bulk of the popidation, and the Quichua is the dominant language outside of the cities.

The Anuicanians (q. v.) of .southern Chile, who have successfully resisted all attempts at their subjugation to the present day: the Moxos tribes of southern Bolivia and their neighbours, the Calchaqui of Argen- tina; the populous Guaranf tribes of the Paraguay; and the majority of the tribes of the middle Orinoco, were chiefly sedentary and agricultural in habit, and fairly well advanced in the simple native arts, in- cluding pottery-making, weaving, and the prepara- tion of tapioca flour from the manioc root. The tribes of the great Amazon basin and of eastern Brazil, as a rule, were primarily himters or fishers, and of lower culture, as were also the predatory equestrian tribes of the Chaco, central Argentina, and Patagonia, while the Ona and others of inclement Tierra del Fuego exemplifieil the lowest degree of savagery, being without clothing, shelter, structure, or any art worthy of the name. Cannibalism prevailed over a large portion of the continent, especially among the Botocudo, Guaranf, and others of the Parand and eastern Brazil, in portions of Guiana and the great Orinoco region, and on some of the upper streams of the Amazon. Social organization and tribal laws and government, excepting among the sedentary tribes of the more southern region, were very loosely defined, and the religion of all seems to have been a simple animism, with apparently much less of cere- monial form than was common among the tribes of similar grade on the northern continent, probably due to the nature of the tropical wilderness, which made it difficult to come together in large numbers.

The eastern tribes were terribly wasted by the organized slave-raiders in the earlier period and until the Jesuits armed them for effective defence in the seventeenth century. Civilization, with its introduced vices and new diseases, particularly smallpox, has