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ICELAND

served to this day at Bessastadr, Gardar, etc. In the museum of Rejkjavik are to be found handsome cruci- fixes, statues, antependia, etc., which recall the Cath- olic past.

Iceland was most disastrously affected in the begin- ning of the fifteenth century by internal unrest, fac- tional conflicts, earthquakes, and epidemics which struck men and beasts alike. About this period, also, religious life left much to be desired. Certain bishops, like Arni Olafsson (1413-30) and Jon Gereksson (1430-33), of Skalholt, neglected their flocks or made themselves odious by their acts of tyranny; others, such as the otherwise eminent Arason Jon (1.524-50), of Holar, gave scandal by disregarding the law of celibacy. The conflict which lasted for a number of years between Arason Jon and the last Bishop of Skalholt, Oejmundr Pdlsson (1520-42) was particu- larly unfortunate.

The first to preach the new faith were two disciples of Luther, Oddur Gotskalksson and Gissur Einarsson. These soon secured followers, particularly after King Christian III of Denmark and Norway declared him- self for the Reformation and, for political and financial reasons, the latter especially, employed force to estab- lish Lutheranism in his kingdom. His object was not to spread the teachings of Luther, but to destroy the last vestiges of liberty in his domains. The imprison- ment of the Bishop of Skalholt left only Arason Jon to wage the fight against the spreading heresy. He suc- ceeded for a time, until he was betrayed into the hands of his enemies, who executed him on 7 November, 1550. To this day his countrymen revere his memory for the heroism which marked his life and glorified his death. (Cf. the drama "Jon Arason ", by Mathias Jochunsson, Isefiordur, 1900.) It was not difficult to scatter the flock after the shepherds had been slain, especially since here, as in Denmark, the people were deceived Ijy the introduction at first of only slight cere- monial changes, the chief efforts being directed to the confiscation of church property. The former ecclesi- astical divisions were allowed to remain; the super- intendents at Skalholt and Holar took the title of bishops, while the preachers retained the name of priests (praestur). But they were very scantily paid, and from that time the Iceland pastor was obliged to take part in the work of agriculture, if he desired to live as well as a middle-class farmer. Latin remained the official language of the Church until the year 1686. Confirmation and catechetical instruction were intro- duced as late as the year 1741, at which time the Augsburg Confession, together with several German and Danish hymns, was translated into the Icelandic tongue, and women were permitted to sing in the churches. The ritual and the vestments of the offi- ciating minister remind one, even to-day, of the Cath- ohc past. The Hamessa (high Mass), which lasts an hour and a half, opens with the Kyrie and Gloria. The Epistle and Gospel are followed by the Creed and the Pater Noster, after which the sermon is preached. Communion frequently comes next. The priest wears, in the cities at least, over the alb a chasuble on the back of which is a golden cross.

Since 1801 Iceland has had only Protestant bishops, who reside at Reykjavik. There are 20 deaneries and 141 parishes, or scarcely half of the former number. Only seven of the churches are built of stone, most of these dating back to Cathohc times; 217 are wooden structures, while for the rest turf or peat is the mate- rial used. A distinction is made between principal and secondary churches. The former contain thirty or thirty-two pews generally unpainted, with room for about one hundretl persons. The interior is as bare and as plain as the exterior. There is an altar, some- times a baptismal font, and a primitive pulpit. Fre- quently a picture hangs above the altar, which is nothing more than a table. Both the principal church, which frequently adjoins the presbytery, and

the subsidiary church, which is generally found near the estate of a wealthy farmer, serve during the week as storehouses for clothing, wool, etc., or as sleeping quarters for guests. Organs are very rare. (Her- mann, op. cit.)

Schools, properly so called, are to be found only in the cities. Instruction is a home duty, and is super- vised by the preacher as far as circumstances permit. Of course the results thus obtained are not of a high order; but most of the people can read and cipher passably, and wTite a little. The higher educational institutions of Iceland number a classical high school, a medical school, one seminary for preachers, one nau- tical and several agricultural schools. The State Library at Reykjavik is comparatively well endowed. Those who wish to pursue higher studies enter the L^niversity of Copenhagen.

The standard of morality is not high, and illegiti- mate births are numerous. No doubt this is partly due to the fact that the two sexes live in close prox- imity, occupying together undivided rooms, and that the women greatly outnumber men, many of whom succumb to hunting or fishing accidents. It is a very characteristic fact, that of all the works of foreign poets, those of Heine are the most widely read.

Formerly the rigorous laws of Denmark, which were also in force in Iceland, prohibited under severe pen- alties the celebration of Catholic services. For more than three hundred years no Catholic priest was per- mitted to set foot on that soil. The first to dare settle in this country (1859) were Frenchmen, the Abb& Bernard and Baudoin. But the intolerance to which they were subjected, on the part of preachers and state officials alike, caused them much suff'ering, which soon drove Bernard to abandon the country, while Baudoin persevered until 1875. He was the author of the first manual of the Catholic religion in modern Icelandic. After his departure, the mission remained forsaken, although freedom of worship had existed since the preceding year (1874). In 1895 missionarj- work was resumed with great vigour. It is now conducted by the Marists (2 priests and 2 lay brothers), and boasts of a pretty wooden church, a school (which is also attended by Protestant children), and an excellent hospital, in which the nursing is done by the Sisters of St. Joseph, of Chamb^ry. The Catholic community is still small, numbering only about 50 souls, and finds temporary increase in the presence of Catholic seamen. But the outlook is more promising than Protestant writers affect to beUeve. Here and there Protestant clergjTnen ardently study the Fathers of the Church, and there are presbyteries in which the image of the Madonna hangs alongside that of Luther. Furthermore, in spite of all opposition, these people still cherish hjTnns in honour of the Blessed Virgin; these have been collected by Dr. Thorkelsson, whose son was reconciled with the Church in 1905.

Burton, Ultima Thule, or a Summer in Iceland, with historical introduction, maps, and illustrations (2 vols., London, 1875): Allgemeine Welthislorie. vols. XXXI. XXXII. XXXIII (HaUe, 1768. 1770, 1771): D.\hlm.\n.n'-Schafer, Danemark m Ge- srhichte der europdischen Staaten (5 vols., Gotha, 1840-92); Munch, Det norske Folkes Historie (Christiania, 1852-63); il-vUREB. Island von seiner ersten Entdeckung bis zum Vntergang des Freistaates (Munich, 1874): Idem, Zur politi-schen Geschichte Islands (Leipzig. 1880); Baumg.vrt.ver, Xordische Fahrten: Island und die Fdroer (3rd ed., Freiburg im Br.. 1902) ; Ide.m in Kirchenlex., s. v. Island, containing a very explicit treatise on the political and ecclesiastical development of the country, with exhaustive bibliographical references: Hermann, Island in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart (2 vols.. Leipzig, 1907); the first part deals with the country and its people, the second has notes of travels and contains numerous translations of songs, bits of folk-lore, etc. ; this book, viewed from an hLstorical standpoint, is prejudiced, and not without inconsistencies: but otherwise it is very good. Buchberger, Kirchl. Handlexikon (Munich, 1907), s. v. Island; Katholische Missionen (1907-08): Loeffler, Ddnemarks Natur und Volk (Copenhagen, 1905) : Pt. Ill, Island, 85 sqq. (with extensive bibliographical references): Lundborg, Islands staalsrechtliche Stellung von der Freistaatszeit bis in unsere Tage (Berlin. 1908): Rosenberg, Nordhoemes Aandsliv. (Copenhagen. 1S77-S5); Schweitzer, Geschi^rhte der skandi- navischen Literatur (3 vols., Leipzig, 1895), detailed, but a very