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 HUMANISM

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HUMANISM

ablest intellects of Italy were attracted to the city; to Nicholas mankind and learning are indebted for the fountlation of the Vatican Library, which in the num- ber and value of its manuscripts (particularly Greek) surpassed all others. The pope encouraged, espe- cially, translations from the Greek, and with impor- tant results, although no one won the prize of ten thousand gulden offered for a complete translation of Homer.

Pius II (1458-64) was a Humanist himself and had won fame as poet, orator, interpreter of antiquity, jurist, and statesman; after his election, however, he did not fulfil all the expectations of his earlier associ- ates, although he showed himself in various ways a patron of literature and art. Sixtus IV (1471-84) re- established the Vatican Library, neglected by his pred- ecessors, and appointed Platina librarian. " Here reigns an incredible freedom of thought ", was Filelfo's description of the Roman Academy of Pomponio Leto (fl. 149S), an institute which was the lioldcst champion of antiquity in the capital of Christendom. LInder Leo X (151.3-21) Humanism an<l art enjoyed a second golden age. Of the illustrious circle of literati which surrounded him may be mentioned Pietro Bembo (d. 1547) — famous as a writer of prose and poetry, as a Latin and Italian author, as philologist and historian, and yet, in spite of his high ecclesiastical rank, a true worldling. To the same group belonged Jacopo Sado- leto, also versed in the various branches of Latin and Italian culture. The chief merit of Italian Humanism, as indeed of Humanism in general, was that it opened up the real sources of ancient culture and drew from these, as a subject of stuily for its own sake, the cla.ssic literature w-hich till then had been used in a merely fragmentary way. Philological and .scientific criticism was inauguratetl, and historical research advanced. The uncouth Latin of the Scholastics and the monastic writers was replaced by classic elegance. More influ- ential still, but not to good effect, were the religious and moral views of pagan antiquity. Christianity and its ethical system suffered a serious shock. Moral relations, especially marriage, became the subject of ribald jest. In their private lives many Humanists were fleficicnt in moral sense, while the morals of the ui>per classes degenerated into a pitiable excess of un- restrained individualism. A political expression of the humanistic sjiirit is "The Prince" (II Principe) of Niccolo Machiavelli (d. 1527), the gospel of brute force, of contempt for all morality, and of cynical selfishness.

The pillaging of Rome in 1.527 gave the death-blow to Italian Humanism, the serious political and ecclesi- astical complications that ensued prevented its recov- ery. " Barbarian Germany " had long since become its heir, but here Humanism never penetrated so deeply. The religious and moral earnestness of the Ciermans kept them from going too far in their devo- tion to antiquity, beauty, and the [)leasures of sense, and gave the humanistic movement in Germany a practical and educational character. The real direc- tors of the German movement were upright scholars and professors. Only Celtes and a few others arc reminiscent of Italian Humanism. School and uni- versity reform was the chief aim and the chief service of (ierman Humanism. .Mthough German interest in ancient literature began under Charles I\' (1:547-78), the spread of Humanism in German countries dates from the fifteenth century. .(Eneas Sylvius Piccolo- mini, afterwards Pius II, was the apostle of the new movement at the court of Frederick III (1440-9:5). The renowned scholar Nicholas of Cusa (d. 1464) was versed in the cla.ssics, while his friend (ieorg Peuer- bach studied in Italy and subsef|uently lectured on the ancient poets at Vienna. .lohann Midler of Kim- igsberg (Regiomontanus), a pupil of Peuerbach's, was familiar with Cireek, hut was chiefly renowned as an astronomer and mathematician. Though Germany

could not boast of as many powerful patrons of learn- ing as Italy, the new movement did not lack support- ers. The Emperor Maximilian I, Elector Philip of the Palatinate, and his chancellor, Johann von Dalberg (later Bishop of Worms), Duke Eberhard of Wiirt em- berg, Elector Frederick the \\'ise, Duke George of Saxony, Elector Joachim I of Brandenburg, and Arch- bishop Albrecht of Mainz were all supporters of Hu- manism.

Among the citizens, too, the movement met with favour and encouragement. In Nuremberg it was supported by the above-mentioned Regiomontanus, the historians, Hartmann Schedel and Sigmund Mei- sterlein, and also by Willibald Pirkheimer (1470- 1528), who had been educated in Italy, and was an indefatigable worker in the anticiuarian and historical field. His sister, Charitas, the gentle nun, united with true piety a cultivated intellect. Konrad Peut- ingcr (1465-1547), town clerk of Augsburg, devoted his leisure to the service of the arts and sciences, by collecting inscriptions and ancient remains and pub- lishing, or having pulilishcd by others, the sources of German history. The map of Ancient Rome, named after him "Tabula Peutingeriana ", was bequeathed to him by its discoverer, Conrad Celtes, but was not published until after his death. Strasburg was the earliest German stronghold of humanistic ideas. Jacob Wimpheling (d. 1528), a champion of German .sentiment and nationality, and Sebastian Brant were the chief representatives of the movement, and at- tained a wide reputation owing to their quarrel with Murner, who had published a paper in opposition to Wimpheling's "Ciermania", ami owing to the contro- versy concerning the Immaculate Conception. As in Italy so in Germany learned societies sprang up, such as the" Donaugesellschaft " (Danubiana) in Vienna — the most prominent member of which, Johann Spiess- heimer (Cuspinian, 1473-1529), distinguished him- self as an editor and an historian- — and the " Rlieinische Gesellschaft " (Rhenana), under the above-mentioned Johann von Dalberg. Clo.selyassociated with the latter was Abbot Johannes Trithemius (1462-1516), a man of universal attainments. The life of these two chief societies was Conrad Celtes, the fearless and imweary- ing apostle and itinerant preacher of Humanism, a man of the most varied talents — a philosopher, mathematician, historian, publisher of cla.ssical and medieval writings, and a clever Latin poet, who cele- brated in ardent verse his ever changing lady-loves and led a life of worldly indulgence.

Into the universities, too, the representatives of the " languages and belles-lettres" soon found their way. In Basle, which, in 1474, had appointed a professor of the liberal arts and poetry, the movement was repre- sented chiefly by Ileinrlch Glareanus (1488-156:5), celebrated as geographer and musician. The best known Humanist of Tubingen was the poet Heinrich Bebel (1472-1518), an ardent patriot and an enthu- siastic admirer of style and eloquence. His most widely-known work is the obscene " Facetiie ". Agri- cola (d. 1485), in the opinion of Erasmus a perfect .stylist and Latinist, taught at Heidelberg. The inau- gurator of Humanism in Mainz was the prolific author, Dietrich Gre.semund (1477-1512). The movement secured official recognition at the university in 1502 under Elector Berthold, and found in Joaimes Rhagius iEstieampianus its most influential supporter. In the itinerant poet Peter Luder, Erfurt had in 1460 one of the earliest representatives of Humanism, and in Jodokus Trutfetter (1460-1519), the teacher of Luther, a diligent writer and con.scientious professor of theology and philosophy. The real guide of the youth of Erfurt was, however, Konrad Mutianus Rufus (1471-1,526), a canon at Gotha, educated in Italy. .-V zeal for teaching coupled with a pugnacious temperament, a delight in books but not in their making, rehgious latitudinarianism, and enthusiasm