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 HISTORY

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HISTORY

of sufficient importance to demand a new epoch; others, more reasonably perhaps, see a distinct epochal line in the Treaty of Westphalia (164S), with which the formation of great Protestant territories came to an end. From the above considerations we deduce the following chronological arrangement of general ecclesiastical history:

First Period: Origin and Development of the Church in the ancient Greeco-Roman world (from the birth of Christ to the close of the seventh century).

(a) First Epoch: Foundation, expansion and forma- tion of the Church despite the oppression of the pagan- Roman state (from Christ to the Edict of Milan, 313).

(b) Second Epoch: The Church in close connexion with the Christian-Roman Empire (from the Edict of Milan to the Trullan SjTiod, 692).

Second Period: The Church as the guide of the Western nations (from the close of theseventh century to the beginning of the sixteenth), (a) First Epoch: The popes in alliance with the Carlovingians, decad- ence of religious life in the West, isolation of the Byzan- tine Church and its final rupture with Rome (Trullan S.\^lod to Leo IX, 1054). (b) Second Epoch: Interior reformation of ecclesiastical life through the popes, the Crusades, flourishing of the religious life and sci- ences, acme of the ecclesiastical and political power of the papacy (from 1054 to Boniface VIII, 1303). (c) Third Epoch: Decline of the ecclesiastical and politi- cal power of the papacy; decay of religious life and outcry for reforms (from 1.303 to Leo X, 1521).

Third Period: The Church after the collapse of the religious unity in the West, struggle against heresy and infidelity, expansion in non-European countries (from beginning of sixteenth century to our own age), (a) First Epoch: Origin and expansion of Protestantism; conflict with that heresy and reformation of ecclesias- tical life (from 1521 to" Treaty of Westphalia, 1648). (b) Second Epoch: Oppression of the Church bj- state- absolutism, weakening of religious life through the in- fluence of a false intellectual emancipation (from 1648 to the French Revolution, 17S9). (c) Third Epoch: Oppression of the Church by the Revolution; renewal of ecclesiastical life struggling against infidelity; prog- ress of missionary activity (from 1789).

As regards the methodical treatment of the subject^ matter within the principal divisions, most ^Titers en- deavour to treat the main phases of the internal and external history of the Church in such a manner as to secure a logical arrangement throughout each period. Deviations from this method are only exceptional, as when Darras treats each pontificate separately. This latter method is. however, somewhat too mechanical and superficial, and in the case of lengthy periods it becomes difficult to retain a clear grasp of the facts and to appreciate their interconnexion. Recent wri- ters, therefore, aim at such a division of the matter within the different periods as will lay more stress on the important forms and expressions of ecclesiastical life (Moeller, Muller, Kirsch in his revision of Hergen- rbther). The larger periods are divided into a number of shorter epochs, in each of which the most important event or situation in the history of the Church stands out with distinctness, other phases of ecclesiastical life — including the ecclesiastical history of the individual countries — being treated in connexion vrith this cen- tral subject. The subject-matter of each period thus receives a treatment at once chronological and logical, and most in keeping with the historical development of the events portrayed. The narrative gains in lucid- ity and artistic finish, within the shorter periods the historical material is more easily grasped, while the active forces in all great movements appear in bolder relief. It is true that this method involves a certain inequality in the treatment of the various phases of ecclesiastical life, but the same inequality already ex- isted in the historical situation described.

V. Sources of Ecclesiastical History. — Histori-

cal sources are those human products which were either originally intended, or which — on account of their existence, origin, and other condition.s — are pre- eminently fitted, to furnish knowledge and evidence of historical facts The sources of ecclesiastical history are therefore whatever things, either because of their object or of other circumstances, can throw light on the facts that make up the ecclesiastical life of the past. These sources fall naturally into two classes: (A) Remains {reliquice, Ueberreste) or immediate sources, i. e. such as prove a fact directly, being them- selves part or remnant of the fact. To this class belong remains in the narrower sense of the word, e. g. liturgical customs, ecclesiastical institutions, acts of the popes and councils, art-products etc.; also monu- ments set up to commemorate events, e. g. inscrip- tions. (B) Tradition or mediate sources, i. e. such as rest upon the statements of witnesses who communi- cate an event to others. Tradition may be oral (nar- rative and legends), WTitten (wTitings of particular authors), or pictorial (pictures, statues). The criti- cal treatment of the two kinds of sources differs. It is usually sufficient to prove the authenticity and in- tegrity of "remains" in order to establish the validity of their evidence. In dealing with tradition, on the other hand, it must be proved that the author of the source in question deserves credit, also that it was possible for him to know the fact. The sources are further divided: (a) according to their origin, into diiine (the canonical sacred writings) and hurtxan (all other sources); (b) according to the position of the author, into public (such as originated from an official person or magistrate, e. g. papal writings, decrees of councils, pastoral letters of bishops, rules of orders etc.) and private (such as come from a person holding no public office, or from an official in his private capac- ity, e. g. biographies, works of ecclesiastical writers, private letters etc.); (c) according to the religion of the author, into domestic (of Christian origin) and foreign (i. e. written by non-Christians) ; (d) according to the manner of transmission, into written (inscrip- tions, public acts, writings of all kinds) and unwritten (monuments, art-products, stories, legends etc.).

The aforesaid historical sources have in modern times been fully and critically investigated by nu- merous scholars and arc now easily accessible to all in good editions. A very general outline of these sources will suffice here (see special articles in this Encyclopedia).

(.4) Remains. — The remains of the Church's past, which give direct evidence of historical facts, are the following: (1) Inscriptions, i.e. texts written on dur- able material, which were either meant to perpet^ uate the knowledge of certain acts, or which describe the character and purpose of a particular object. The Christian inscriptions of different epochs and coun- tries are now accessilile in numerous collections. (2) Monuments erected for Christian purposes, especially tombs, .sacred edifices, monasteries, hospitals for the sick and pilgrims; objects used in the liturg\- or pri- vate devotions. (3) Liturgies, rituals, particularly ht- urgical books of various kinds, which were once used in Divine service. (4) Necrologies and confraternity- books used at the prayers and public services for the living and the dead. (5) Papal acts. Bulls and Briefs to a great extent edited in the papal "BuUaria", "Regesta", and special ecclesiastico-national collec- tions. (6) .^cts and decrees of general councils and of particular synods. (7) Collections of official decrees of Rom;in congregations, bishops, and other ecclesias- tical authorities. (S) Rules of faith (Symbola fidei) drawn up for the public use of the Church, various collections of which have been made. (9) Official col- lections of ecclesiastical laws juridically obligatory for the whole Church. (10) Rules and constitutions of orders and congregations. (11) Concordats between the ecclesiastical and the secular power. (12) Civil