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eluded. These were missionaries, prophets, and "doc- tors", some of whom, had a direct Divine calUng and a gift of infused knowledge. Other teachers were distinguished from evangelists by permanent resi- dence in some community. This abundance of preachers of the Word of God (XaXoGfres rbv \6yov toO 0€ov) mentioned only by St. Paul. I Tim., ii, 7; II Tim., i, 11 ; and I Clem., v, 6) frequently relieved the local superiors of their obligation to preach in person.

With the growth of the communities, the Apostle- founders entrusted part of their office to men worthy of their confidence, who were thus invested with a monarchical authority over several communities, without, however, succeeding to all Apostolic preroga- tives. These men soon received the title of cpiskopos; and, as a result, this term became obsolete as a mere synonym for presbyter. Such are the historical begin- nings of the monarchical episcopate. For a long time, however, the bishops were also called l:)y the simple title of presbyter. The greater the number of distinct communities, the more numerous were the monar- chical bishops; and in some districts every town soon had a bishop of its own. Those early recipients of the Apostolic confidence were not as yet local superiors in the strict sen.se, although of course they usually re- sided in some particular town. The presbyters of their province were subject to them. In this we find the beginning of the system of metropolitan bishops. In some places the presbyterate remained for a con- siderable time the highest local authority. About the same time, the order of deacons became fully organ- ized. They were the right hand of the bishop.

All the germs of later development were present at the very beginning. The constitution of the Church in its essential structural features is an original prod- uct of Christianity. In the light of the laws of history and of Divine Providence, it is easy to understand how from the earliest times the social environment of Christian institutions, the varieties of religious activity and organization, the local and provincial forms of gov- ernment, were important factors in developing a great multitude of unessential details.

Valuable bibliography is to be found in Revue d'kialoire ecclCsi- astique (Louvain, 1900 — ); bibliography and referenres in Theol. Jahn'sbericht (Leipzig and New York) and in J ahresberichien fur Geschichtswissenschaft (Berlin). The literature up to 1900 has been treated in full by Borkowski. Die neueren Forachungen liber die Anfiinge dee Epiacopats (Freiburg, 1900). Still useful are Fetavius, De eeclesiasticd hierarchid libri 5 (Paris, 1643); Mamachi, Originum el Aniiquiiaium christian, libri 5 (Rome, 1749-55); Bingham, Antiquities of the Christian Church (new ed., Oxford, 1855). Among the numerous works written in the earlier nineteenth century the following may still be read with profit: MoHLER, Die Einheit in der Kirche (1S25 and 1S43); RoTHE, Die Anfdngeder chrisiliehen Kirche und ihrer Verfassung, I (1S37); above all, Dollinger, Christcntum und Kirche in der Zeit der Grundlegung (Ratisbon, 1S69); also Lightfoot, The Christian Ministry, in his work .S7. Paul's Epistle to the Philip- pians (2nd ed., 1869). 179-267; reprint in Dissertations of the Apostolic Age (1892), 137-246). In order to understand the last specimens of the older Tubingen School, see Ludemanx in Theol. J ahresberieht; Seufert. Der Ursprung und die Bedeutung des Aposfolats (Leyden, 1887); and Ueber den Ursprung und die Bedeutung des Zwulfapostolnts (Karlsruhe. 1903); Seyerlen in Zeitschrift fur prakt. Theolog., IX (1887), 97-143; 201-245; 297-333). At least two of Baur's numerous writings must be read: Das Christentum und die christlicke Kirche der drei ersten Jahrhunderie (Tiibingen, 1853) and Veher den Vrsprung des Episkopats (Tubingen, 1838). Another tendency in Protestant scholarship dates from Ritschl, Die Entslehung der altkafho- lischen Kirche (2nd ed., Bonn, 1857). The germs of many of the latest hypotheses relating toour subject can be discovered in the following works: Lechler. Das aposfolische und nachaposto- lische Zeitalter (1851); Jakoby, Die konslifuiiven Faktoren des apostolischen Gottesdienstes in Jahrbiicher fiir deutsche Theol., XVIII (1873), 539-583: Hackenschmidt. Die Anfdnge des katholischen Kirchenbegriffs, I (1874); Holsten, Das Evange- Hum des Paxdus, I and II (ISSO and 1898); Heinrici. Aufsdtze iiber die paulinischen Gnneinden in Zeitschrift fiir uissenschaft- tiche Theologie (1876). 465-516. and (1877), 89-130. Little notice is taken of the influence of these works. The follow- ing two works have exercised a great and lasting influence on Protestant scholarship; WeizsXcker, Das apostolische ZeitaUer (Tubingen and Leipzig, 1886; 2nd ed.. 1896; 3rd ed.. 1902) and Holtzmann. Die Pastoralbriefe (Leipzig, 1880). The following works had a considerable, but only passing, influence: Hatch. The Organization of the Early Christian Churrh (Oxford. 1881; 2Dd ed., 1882), translated into German and arapll&ed by Harnack (18S3); Weingarten, Die Umwandlung der ursprung-

lichen chriMlichen Gemeindeorganisation zur knthol. Kirche, in .Sybels Histor. Zeitschrift. XLV (1881), 441-67). All writings on the subject by Harnack, besides his Dogmengeschiehtr, his lar^e edition of the Didache and his Analekten zu Hatch, an article on the origin of the Christian ministry, in Expositor, V, XXIX (1887), 321-43. More recently his work, Die Mission und Ausbreitung des Christentums in den ersten drei Jahrhun- dertcn, I (Leipzig, 1906). 267-418; Sohm, Kirchenrecht, I (1S92), 16-lSO; Reville. Lea origines de I'cpiscopat, 1 (1894).

Among the works, the value of which lies in their critirism of the various hypotheses, without their offering any conclusions of lasting value, are to be numbered; Kuhl, Die Gcmeindeordnung in den Pastoralhriefen (1SS5); Loning, Die Gemcindeverfassung dts Urchristentums (1888); LoOFS, Die urchristliche Gemeinde- verfnssung in Studien und Kritiken, LXIII (1890). II. 619-58. Many other works aroused considerable attention at the time of their appearance, but afterwards lost their value: those, for instance, by Schwegler, Bunsen, Schaff, Havet. Renan, Hausrath. the entire Dutch radical school, Pressense. etc. Eight articles in the Expositor for 1887 show an extraordinary confusion in the line of historical research. Hort, The Christian Ecclesia (1897) Ls very unsatisfactory.

Useful collections of material are found in: the notes and excursus in Lightfoot, Apostolic Fathers; the Hturgical works of Probst; works by Ramsay, e. g., The Church in the Ro7nan Empire (London. 1893, 7th ed., 1903); St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen (7th ed., London, 1903); The Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia (Oxford. 1897-97) ; Cabrol and Le- CLERCQ, Monumenta Ecclesice Liturgica (Paris, 1900); works of HiLGENFELD. as Die apostolischen Vdter (1853). Das Urchris- ientum in den Hauptwendepunkten seines Entwicklungsganges (1S55), and articles in Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftl. Theologie (1874-97) (1874, 103, sq.; 1886. I sq.; 180sq.; 385sq.; 456sq.; 1890. 223 sq.; 303 sq.; 1897, 1 sq.). Few. however, of the positive results can be accepted. Very many of the remaining works are based wholly on the labours of others. McGiffeht. Hist, of Christianity in the .Apost. Age (Edinburgh. 1897) is in close relation with German Protestant historical investigation.

Catholic scholarship has been influenced by the following works among others ; de Sm edt, L 'organ isation des cglises rhrctiennes in Revue des questions historiques, XLIV (1888), 329-84; Jacquier, La doctrine des douze apotres (1891). 216^ 257; also the corresponding sections in Sch.\nz, Apologie. The subject has also been well treated by Lesquoy. De regimine ecilesiastico juxta patrum apostolicorum doctrinam (Ix)uvain, 1881); Brull, Der Hirtdes Hermas (1882) and Der erst e Brief des Clemens von Rom (1883); Gobet. De I'origine divine de Vcpiscopat (Fribourg, 1898); Sobkowski, Episkopnt und Pres- byterat in den ersten christlichen J ahrhunderten (Wiirzburg, 1893); DouAis, Les origines de Vcpiscopat, in Melanges publ. (I Voccasion du jubile de Mgr de Cabricres, I (Paris, 1899). 1-48.

The Journal of Theological Studies; American Eccl. Review; American Journal of Theology; Revue Biblique; Revue Bt-nidic- tine; Revue Thomiste; Revue dc VOrient Chretien; Zeitschrift fiir neutestamcntliche Wissenschafi und die Kunde des Chris- tentums; Rivista storieo-critica delle scienze teologiche; Civilta Cattol. (e. g.. May. 1906, 2.57-274). Also the important articles in Hastings. ZJic^ of the Bible; in Dictionnaire de theologie. and the recent new edition of the Dictionnaire d'Apologetigue.

More important works by Protestant authors thai have re- cently appenroci (since 1900): Ropes. The Apostolic Age in the Light of Sloilcrn Criticism (New York, 1906); Monnier, La notion (!'■• I'lipos/Dlitt des origines d Ircnce (P.-irls, 1903); Durell, The Historic Church (Cambridge. 1906), well worth reading; Heinrici. Das Ur christentum (1902): Wernle, Die Anfdnge unscrer Religion (1903); Dobschutz, Probleme des apostoli- schen Zeitalters (1904); Die urchristlichen Gemeindcn (1902); Knopf, Das nachapostolischcr Zeitalter (1905). Many mono- graphs on St. Paul — Harnack in Realcncyclopndie fiir protest. Theologie und Kirche, XX (3rd ed., 1908. 508-546), s. v. Ver- fassung, is important and interesting.

Some of the more important Catholic works since 1900: Michiels, Les origines de V episcopal (Louvain, 1900); Batiffol, L'hicrarchie primitive in Etudes d'histoire et de theologie positive (2nd ed., Paris, 1902); and especially L'Eglise naissante et le Catholicisme (Paris, 1909); Bruders, Die Verfassung der Kirche (Mainz, 1904); Duchesne, Histoire ancienne de I'Eglise, I (Paris, 1906), 89 sq.; Le Camus, VQCuvre des apdtres, II, III (Paris. 1905); Mathew, Ecclesia, the Church of Christ (London, 1906): Cabrol, Les origines liturgigues (Paris. 1906); Genouil- LAC. L^Eglise chretienne au temps de Saint Ignace d'Antioche (Paris. 1907); Prat, La theologie de St. Paul. I (Paris. 1908). Note J, 488-511. Finally the notable work by Mertens. De hierarchic in deeerste eeuwdes Christendoms (Amsterdam. 1908).

Stanislaus de Dunin Borkowski.

Hierocsesarea, a titular see of Lydia, suffragan of Sardis. This town is mentioned by Ptolemy (VI, ii. Ui). Judging from its coins it worshipped Artemis Persica. The site of Hieroccesarea mu.st have been between the villages of Beyova and Sasova. seven or eight miles south-east of Thyatira, on the left bank of the Koum-Chai,a tributary of the Hermus, and in the vilayet of Smyrna. It is mentioned as an episcopal see in ail the "Not it ia^ Episcopatuum" until the twelfth or thirteenth century, but we know only three of its bishops: Cosinius, at Chalcedon, 451; Zacharias, at Nicaea, 782; Theodore, at Constantinople, 879.