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HENRY

violated in the consolidation of his landed possessions, those fortresses might well appear so many threats to their liberties. Soon, not only in Saxony, but else- where throughout the empire, the particularist princes rose to oppose the vigorous centralizing policy of the emperor. The situation assumed a dangerous aspect. Henry's diplomatic skill was now shown. Through the mediation of the spiritual princes the Treaty of Gerstungen (1074) was effected, by which, on the one hand, the king's possessions were left intact, while, on the other, the insurgents secured the dismantling of the royal fortresses and the restoration of all their rights. But soon the revolt broke out anew and was not subdued until Henry's victory at the Unstrut (1075), which resulted in the overthrow of Saxony. Henry seemed to have attained all his desires. In truth, however, the particularist forces had only with- drawn for the moment and were awaiting a favourable opportunity to break the chains which fettered their independence. The opportunity .soon came.

In 1073 Ilildeljrand had ascended the papal throne as Gregory VII. The "greatest ecclesiastical states- man ", as von Ranke calls him, directed his attacks against the traditional right of the German kings to participate in the filling of vacant sees. At the Lenten synod of 1075 in Rome he forbade investiture by lay- men. The bishops were to cease being dependents of the Crown and become materially the dependents of the papacy. That foreboded a death-ljlow to the ex- isting constitution of the empire. The l:)ishops of the empire were also the most important officials of the empire: the imperial church domains were also the chief source of income of the emperor. It was a ques- tion of life and death for the German Crown to retain its ancient influence over the bishops. A bitter con- flict between the two powers began. A synod at Worms (1076) deposed Pope Gregory. Bishops and king again found their interests threatened by the papacy. Gregory's answer to Henry's action was to excommimicate him at the Lenten synod of the same year. For the particularist powers this was the signal of revolt. At Tribur Henry's opponents formed an alliance. Here the final decision in Henry's case was left to the pope, and a resolution was passed that if Henry were not freed from excommunication within a year he should forfeit the empire. At this critical juncture, Henry decided on a surprising step. He submitted himself to solemn ecclesiastical penance and thus forced Gregory as a priest to free him from ex- communication (1077).

By doing so Gregory in no wise gave up his design of making himself the arbiter of Germany. In Greg- ory's opinion Henry's penance could only postpone but not prevent this arbitration. Henry was satis- fied once more to set his feet on solid ground. But the German princes now broke out into open revolu-

SiGN OF Henry IV

" Signum doinni Heinrici qviarti + regis "

From a document dated 1.5 April, 1064, in the State

archives at Berlin

tion. They set Rudolph of Rheinfelden up as rival king. With his difficulties, however, Henry's al.iility grew more apparent. He had recourse to his superior resources as a diplomatist. In his struggle with the pope, who took the side of the German princes, he made use of the opposition within the Church in Italy against the hierarchical aims of the Curia; in his dispute with the princes and their ri\'al king Henry looked for support to the loyalty of the masses, who honoured him as the preserver of order and peace. After several years of civil war, Rudolph lost his throne and his life at Molsen in lOSO, By his death

the opposition in Germany lost their leader. In Italy also aflairs took a more favourable turn for Henry. It is true that in lOSO the pope had excom- municated Henry anew, but the ban did not make the same impression as before. Henry retorted by setting up Guibert of Ravenna, who proclaimed him- self antipope un-. r^^^sa^ der the title of •HenHC.^^ ^^^^ OUartufi Clement III. The ' «fe ffi^S« ij"^ iW growing opposi- tion within the Church aided Henry on his j our- nev to Rome in lOSl. From 1 OS 1 to 10S4 he went four times to the Eternal City. Finally his anti- pope was able to crown him in St. Peter's. Soon after the pope was lilierated bj' his Norman allies and escorted to Salerno, where he died, 25 May, 10S5.

The struggle was continued under Gregory's Henry IV Enthroned with Crown, second successor, Sceptke, .\nd Orb

Urban II ^•lio^'^i^t"S from the Chronicle of Ekkehard

,, ' • , of Aura (11 13J, MS. at Cambridge

was determined

to follow in Gregory 's footsteps. Germany was suffering from the horrors of civil war, and the great masses of the people still supported their king, who in 1085 pro- claimed the Truce of God for the whole empire. By means of skilful negotiation he now succeeded in winning over the greater part of the Saxons, to whom he restored their ancient rights. On the other hand the ranks of the bishops loyal to the king had been thinned out by the clever and energetic policy of the pope. Moreover a new and dangerous coalition was formed in Italy when the seventeen-year old Guelph married Matilda of Tuscany who had reached the age of forty. Henry's efl'orts to break up this alliance were successful at first; but at this point his son Con- rad deserted him. The latter had himself crowned in Milan and formed alliances with the pope and with the Guelph-Tuscan party. This had a paralysing effect on the emperor, who passed the year 1094 inactive in Italy, while the pope became the leader of the West, in tile First Crusade. Fortunately for Henry's inter- ests the younger Guelph now dissolved his marriage with Matilda, and the elder Guelph made his peace with the king once more. The latter was now able to return to Germany and compel his enemies to recognize him. His son Henry was elected king in 1098.

Henry sought to restore order once more, even to the point of proclaiming general peace throughout the empire (1103). This policy of pacification bene- fited the great mass of the people and the rapidly growing cities and was directed against the disorderly lay nobility. Perhaps this may have induced the newly chosen young king to take up arms in rebellion against his father. Perhaps he wished to make sure of the s.ympathies of this nobility. At all events the younger Henry gathered a host of malcontents around his banner in Bavaria in 1104. Supported by the pope, to whom he swore obedience, he betook himself to Saxony, where he soon reawakened the traditional dissatisfaction. No humiliation was spared the pre- maturely aging em]ieror, who was kept prisoner in Bbckelheim by his intriguing son and compelled to