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HAMMURABI

47). Fr. Scheil estimated that the five columns erased, as has been described above, contained about forty laws; the exact number might be 37, thus giving a total of 285; at any rate, the numbering of the edilio princeps is usually followed.

An idea of the comprehensiveness of the Code may be gathered from the enumeration of the legal matters, both civil and criminal, dealt with in it. It opens with two laws concerning ban and witchcraft (§§ 1, 2), two dealing with false witnesses (§§ 3, 4), and one on pre- varicating judges (§5). The next laws treat of theft (§§ 6-8), stolen property found in another's hand (§1 9-13), kidnapping (§ 14), escape and kidnapping of slaves (§§ 15-20), burglary and brigandage (§§ 21- 25). Others are devoted to feudal relations to the king (5§ 26^1); the relations between landowner and cultivator (§§ 42-52), responsibility for damages caused to crops by careless farmers (§§ 53-56) and shepherds (§§57, 58), enactments concerning orchards (§§ 59-6.5).

Among the laws chiselled off, three have been re- covered by Fr. Scheil from mutilated copies of the Code; they deal with loans and house-renting. Fol- lowing the blank space are provisions touching the respective rights of merchants and agents (§§ 100- 107) and the policing of wine-shops (§§ 108-111), ap- propriation of consignments (§ 112), debts (§§ 113- 119), and deposits (§§ 120-126) are also treated of. These are followed by laws treating of the family. Slander against a woman, either dedicated to a god or married, opens the series (§ 127); then, after having defined the position of the woman (§ 128), the Code deals with adultery (§ 129), violation of a married virgin (§ 130), suspicion of unchastity (§§ 131, 132), separation and divorce (§§ 133-143), taking a concu- bine (§§ 144-149), women's property (§§ 150-152), various forms of unchastity (§§ 153-15S) and the customs regarding the purchase price for, and the mar- riage portion of, the bride (§§ 159-164). Inheritance laws come next; they define the rights of chil- dren, wives, concubines (§§ 16.5-174), slaves (§§ 175- 176), widows (§ 177), and non-marriageable temple- and street-girls (§§ 178-184); provisions respecting adoption and foster-children (§§ 185-193) conclude this important part of the Code. Follow'ing are vari- ous series of regulations concerning personal damages (§§ 194-214), fees and responsibilities of physicians (§§ 215-227), payment and responsibilities of house- builders (§§ 228-233), ship-builders (§§ 2.34, 235), and boatmen '(§§ 236-240). Another set is devoted to agricultural labour: hiring of domestic animals (§§ 241-249), injuries caused by goring oxen (§§ 2.50-2.52), the hiring of persons, animals, wagons, and ships (§§ 25.3-277). The last regulations deal with .slave- trade (§§ 278-281) and the penalty inflicted on rebel- lious slaves (§ 282).

The conclusion of the inscription sounds like a hymn of high-keyed self-praise. The document ends with a blessing for those who will obey the laws and a long series of curses against him who will give no heed to the laws, or interfere with the word of the Code. Hammurabi's Code cannot by any means be regarded as a faltering attempt to frame laws among a young and inexperienced people. Such a masterpiece of legis- lation could befit only a thriving and well-organized nation, given to agriculture and commerce, long since grown familiar with the secvirity afforded by written deeds drawn up with all the niceties and solemnities which clever jurists could devise, and accustomed to transact no business otherwise. It is inspired through- out by an appreciation of the right and humane senti- ments that make it surpass by far the stem old Roman law.

Of all the ancient legislations, that of the Hebrews alone can stand comparison with the Babylonian Code. The many points of resemblance between the two, the Babylonian origin of the father of the Hebrew

race, the long relations of Babylon with the land of Amurru, have prompted modern scholars to investi- gate whether the undeniable relation of the two codes is not one of dependence. The conclusions arrived at may be briefly stated as follows. Needless to no- tice that Hammurabi is in no wise indebted to the Hebrew Law. As to the latter, its older part, the Code of the Covenant (Exod., xxi, 1 — x.xiii, 19), is in- tended for a semi-nomad people, and therefore cannot depend on Hammurabi's enactments. Both codes derive from a common older source, to be sought in the early customs of the Semitic race, when Babylonians, Hebrews, Arabs, and others were still forming one people. The work of the Hebrew lawgiver con- sisted in codifying these ancient usages as he found them, and promulgating them under Yahweh's au- thority. The early Israelite code may, perhaps, seem imperfect in comparison with the Babylonian corpus juris; but, whilst the latter is founded upon the dictates of reason, the Hebrew Law is groimded on the faith in the one true God, and is pervaded throughout by an earnest desire to obey and please Him, which reaches its highest expression in the Law of Deuteronomy.

I. Inschiptions of Hammurabi. — Rawlinson, Cuneiform Ijiscnptwns of Wtstem Asiti (London, 1S61-1S.S4); Cuneiform texta from Babylonian tablets, etc., in the British Museum (Lon- don, 1S96): King, Letters and Inscriptions of Hammurabi (Lon- don, 1S9S-1900): Menant, Inscriptions de Hammourubi (Paris, 1863); Amiaud, Receueil de Traiaui (Paris, 1S80); Scheil, Delegation en Perse. Memoires publics sous la direction de M. J. de Morgan, IV: Textes ElamitesScmitiquea, deuriime aerie (Paris, 1902 — Editio princeps of the 0)de); Scheil, Lot de HammouTabi (Paris, 1904); Johns, Oldest Code of Laws in the World (Edinburgh, 1903): Harper. Code of Hammurabi King of Babylon ((Chicago, 1904); Winckler, Die Geaetze Hammu- rabia, Daa alteste Gesetzbuch der Welt uberaetzt (Leipzig. 1903); Idem, Die Geaetze Hammurabia in Umschrift und Uebersetzung herausgegeben (Leipzig, 1904); Kohler and Peiser, Ham- 7nurabis Gesetz (Leipzig. 1903).

II. History of Babylonia at the Time of Hammurabi. — Besides the works mentioned in the articles on .Assyria and Babylonia: King. Chronicles concerning early Babylonian kinga (London, 1907); Ungnad, Selected Babylonian Busineaa and Legal documents of Hammurabi' a period (Loudon, 1907); BoscAWEN, The First of Empires (London, 1907); Kino, His- tory of Babylonia and Assyria from the earliest times to the Pcraian conquest (Loniion, 1908); Schrader, Keilinschriftcn Bibliothek, III, i: Hist. Telle altbabyl. Herrscher (Leipzig, 1889); Ulmeh, Hammurabi, sein Land und seine Zeit (Leipzig. 1907).

in. STUDIE.S ON the Hammurabi Code. — CooK, Law of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi (London, 1903): Davies, Codes of Hammurabi and Moses (Cincinnati, 190.5); Edwards, Hammurabi Code and the Sinaitic legislation (London, 1904); Johns, Notes on the Code of Hammurabi (London, 1903); Idem, Babylonian and Assyrian Laus. Contracts and Letters (London, 1904) ; Idem, Code of Hammurabi in Hastings. Diet, of the Bible, extra vol. (190.5); Pinciie.s, Old Testament in the light of the Historical Records and Legends of Assyria and Babylonia (London, 1904); Grimme. Das Gesetz Chammurabis und Moses. Eine Skizzc (Cologne, 1903). tr. by Pilteh: The Lau- of Ham- murabi and Moses. A Sketch (Londou. 1907); CJbelli, Daa Gesetz Hammurnbis und die Thora Israels: Eine religions- und rechtgeschirhtliche Parallele (Leipzig, 1903); CoHN, Die Gcsetze Hammurabia (Zurich. 1903); Daiches, Altbabylomsche Rechts- urkundenaua der Zeit der Hammurabi-Dynastie (Leipzig. 1903); Jeremias, Moses und Hammurabi (Leipzig, 1903); MuELI.ER, Die Gcsetze Hammurahis und ihr Verhallms zur mosaischen Gesctzgehung son-ie zu den mmiachm XII Tafeln (Vienna. 1903): Idem, Uebcr die Gcsetze Hammurahis (Vicrma. 1904); Idem, Dn» surisch-riimiachc Rechtsbuch und Hammurabi (Vienna. 1905); Mari, II Codice di Hammurabi c la Bibbia (Rome, 1903): Bon- FANTE, Le legoi di Hammurabi re di Babylonia (Mil.an, 190:i): BoscHERON, Babylone et la Bible (Paris. 1906). Among the numerous articles in theological and other reviews, we shall mention only the followinK: Johns. Code of Hammurabi in Journal of Theological Studies (Jan.. 190.3): Sayce, 7Ae Legal Code of Babulonia in American Journal of Theology JlWi), J56-- 66- Buhl. Kong Hammurabis loisnmhng in l\ordiak Jldsk-rifl (1903). 33.5-54. 586-99: Oussani, Code of Hammurabi in Aru' York Review (Aug.-Sept.. 1905), 178-97, copious bibliography to date- Idem, Code of Hammurabi and the Mosaic Legislation in New York Review (Uec. 1905-Jan.. 1906), 488-510; DaREste. Code babylonien d'Hammourabi in Journal des Savants {I'Jvd), 517_os .5H6~09- iGEM.Code babylonien d' HammaurabimComptcs Rcndus des' Seances et Travaux dc V Academic des Sciences Morales et Pnlitiques. CLIX, 306-39; Lagrange, Code de Ham- mourabi in Ril>ue Biblique (1903). 27-.51 ; HALEVY.ff Code d'Hammourabi et la Legislation Hcbrnique in Revue Semittque (1903) 14-53 40-49. 323-24: Oppebt. La (0! dcHammourafti (Paris.' 1905); CuQ. Le Manage ti Bahglone d'aprea lea his de Unmmnurahi in Kevue Biblique (.1905). :^5n-^l., , . -u

IV. Hammubabi-Amraphel.— See the works mentioned in the bibliographies to the articles AssYRU (VI) and Babylonia, and