Page:Catholic Encyclopedia, volume 6.djvu/606

 GERSON

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GERSON

church of the Sorbonne his picture is the companion to that of Bossuet.

Views as to the Constitution of the Church: Council of Constance. — It is well known that what the theolo- gians of the early part of the fourteenth century lacked most, was a fixed doctrine on what theologians to-day call the Traite de I'Eglise. Gallicanism was born of the false principles, or rather of the temporary expedients believed to be a necessity amid the unfor- tunate events of the Great Schism. Extenuating cir- cumstances can be pleaded in Gerson's favour. He had been instructed by men who were none too stable, and had made a close study of William of Occam, the most evil genius of the fourteenth century. As we have seen, Gerson was generally more .sensible and moderate in practice than in theory. Besides, it is now proved that several treatises, sometimes made the basis of an attack on his theological doctrine, were not his at all ("De modis uniendi; octo conclusiones quarum dogmatizatio utilis videtur ad extermina- tionem moderni sclusmatis; Sermo factus in die Ascensionis ", 1409, etc.). In fact his Protestant or Galilean editors, von der Hardt, Richer, and Ellies- Dupin, have done his memory poor service by exag- gerating or envenoming some of his propositions. It is but too true that in regard to the pope and the council, the chancellor maintained erroneous theories which were censurable anil later condemned. In his opinion the sovereign pontiff is not the universal bishop possessing immediate power over all the faith- ful; his power is only subjective and executive ("0pp. Gersonii ", II, 259, 279). Far from being infallible, he can even sometimes fall into heresy, in which event, if he still remain pope, the faithful are empowered to bind him, imprison him and even throw him into the sea (Ibid., 221; Noel Valois, IV, 84). Gerson's doctrine concerning the general council is no sounder. He admits the superiority of the Church and the oecumenical council over the pope, as he sees no other means of emerging from schism and returning to unity. With him temporary expedients become principles. It is what might be called ecclesiastical opportunism. Gerson is exclusively rational and practical, and the object of all his argumentation is the justification of the most extraordinary methods of procedure in order to attain the final result desired by him and by all Christendom. Hence, according to him, the sovereign pontiff is amenable to the council which may correct and even depose him (" 0pp. Ger- sonii", II, 201).

Regarding the convocation and composition of this assembly he declares, with d'Ailly, that the first four CECumenical councils were not convened by the author- ity of the pope, and that not only cardinals, but princes, and in fact any Christian, can convoke a council for the election of a single and universally acknowledged pope ("De auferibihtate papae", in 0pp. Gersonii, II, 209 sqq.). He also maintains that pastors may be sum- moned to such an assembly and may have a deliberate voice as well as bishops (" De potestate ecclesiastica ", in ibid., II, 249). None of the faithful should be ex- cluded (ibid., II, 205). In all of these propositions is seen, as it were, a reflection of the extreme theses of the revolutionary Franciscan, William of Occam. Moreover, Gerson's attitude in the Council of Con- stance was in conformity with his principles. With the delegates from the University of Paris, he de- manded that all three popes immediately tender their resignation (Feb., 1415). A convinced partisan of the superiority of doctors over bishops, he insisted, like d'Ailly, that the doctors of canon and even of civil law should have a voice in the deliberations of the council. This was in consequence of his democratic tendencies (cf. Salembier, Le grand schisme, 212, 299). He e.Kalted to excess the omnipotence of the general council and pursued Pope John XXIII with unflag- ging energy (Schwab, op. cit., 507; von der Hardt, II,

265). He voted for the four famous articles of Con- stance (March, 1415) which are the code of Gallican- ism and pave the way for all the schismatic decisions of the assembly of 1682. Besides, he boldly main- tained that these revolutionary principles were dogmas and wanted them carved on the stone of all the churches (Opp. Gersonii, II, 275). However in 1416 he was obliged to admit with sadness that voices were still raised in denial of the superiority of the council over the popes. Gerson attributed this "condemna- ble " obstinacy to the necessity of sycophancy, calling it " a deadly poison with which the organism of the Church is impregnated to the very marrow" (Ibid., II, 247). It is because of these openly erroneous principles that Gerson, like d'Ailly, his master, passed for a precursor of the Protestant Reformation. It is also for this reason that Protestant writers, such as A. Jepp and Winklemann, in Germany, and de Bonne- chose, in France, compared him to Wyclif and John Hus. What has gone before, however, proves that these comparisons do Gerson injustice.

Gerson's Mystical Theology and Oratory. — Gerson's mystical theology has its own peculiar and original character; it is that of an eminent and almost impec- caljle master. First of all he distinguishes it from scientific theology which is abstract and disciu-sive. His mysticism in its es.sence is an experimental knowl- edge of Gotl which, by love, one perceives in him.self. If the inferior powers remain in darkness, the superior faculties, the intellect, and especially pure love, have the freer play, and therefore constitute a sublime state of transport which surpasses all theoretical learning. This theology does not require great scientific attain- ments, it is within the reach of the most simple. Moreover, through close union with God, it gives us perfect contentment of soul with the entire and defini- tive appeasement of our desires (cf. Schwab, op. cit., 325; Ellies-Dupin, "Opp. Gersonii", I, civ.). Gerson further distinguishes a practical part in his mystical theology and lays down the conditions and means (industria:) preparatory to contemplation. These industrial are as follows: (1) to await the call of God; (2) to know well one's own temperament; (3) to be heedful of one's vocation and one's state; (4) to aim constantly towards greater perfection; (5) to avoid as much as possible a multiplicity of occupations and, in any event, not to become absorbed in them; (6) to set aside all vain desire for learning, i. e. all idle curiosity; (7) to remain calm and practise patience; (8) to know the origin of the affections and passions; (9) to choose the necessary time and place; (10) to avoid extremes, either of abstinence or excess, in sleeping and eating; (11) to indulge in thoughts that excite pious affec- tions; (12) to banish from one's mind all images, which is preeminently modus simplijicandi cor in mcdi- tationibus and producendi contemplationem. Gerson's many treatises are in Vol. Ill of his works. He was one of the first to recognize and proclaim the super- natural vocation of Joan of Arc. He laboured diligently to promote devotion to the Blesseil ^'i^gin and St. Joseph and even dedicated to this saint a poem of 4600 lines entitled " Josephina". He was not the author of the "Imitation of Jesus Christ", and the reasons for this adverse opinion advanced by Ros- weyde. Amort, Malou, Funk, and Vacandard, seem convincing.

He was one of the most eminent orators of his time and preached frequently, either in French or Latin, before the university, at court, in the principal churches of the capital, or in his parish of Samt-Jean- en-Greve. It was in this parish that he preached the most of his sermons in French; these discourses, sixty- four in number, have been specially studied by the Abb^ Bourret, later Bishop of Rodez and cardinal. In plan these instructions are almost the same as modern sermons, but Gerson's learning is often defi- cient in taste and judgment, and he makes sometimes