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may anticipate the day when, Africa in its turn having been subjected to civilization, industry, and uniform- ity, these pictures will be the sole witness of its ancient customs, and will then assume their historic signifi- cation.

It is, however, as a writer that Fromentin is rising more and more to fame. His work is very varied. As a result of his travels, he published, under the titles of :"Un 6t6 dans le Sahara" (Paris, 1856); and "Une annee dans le Sahel" (Paris, 1858), the sou- venirs of his two last sojourns in Algeria. In these he inaugurates a new method of description, much less "literary" than Chateaubriand's, less "technical" than Gautier's, a method which, in French tradition, marks the transition from Bernardin de Saint-Pierre to Loti. " Dominique" appeared later (Paris, 1862). This autobiography and transparent history of a pure youthful love is, together with "Adolphe" and the "Princesse de Cleves", one of the masterpieces of the French "roman d'analj'se". But the work that will transmit Fromentin's name to posterity is his "Mai- trcsd 'autrefois "(Paris, 1S7G). This book is composed from the notes made during a journey through Bel- gium and Holland to study the old painters; or rather, this journey was the occasion of the work. For the author, in connexion with the paintings he saw, dis- cusses, in passing, the questions of Eesthetic moment which he raises. It may be said that this book really originated artistic criticism. As a critic Diderot is purely literary, Hegel metaphysical, Ruskin religious, moral, or apocalyptic, Taine historical, or philoso- phical; but Fromentin made criticism strictly "artis- tic", that is to sa_v, he seeks the secret of thesignificance, value, and beauty of a picture solelj' in an examina- tion of the work, its style, and its methods of execution. It is through the painting thus understood and exam- ined that he succeeds in determining the personality and the moral characteristics of the author. Here Fromentin is a great creator and a great writer, who really invents everything: methods, systems, and terminology. Some of his descriptions of paintings are the last word in the art of writing. Certain of his analyses, such as those of Rubens and Rembrandt, are definitive, and fix, forever, both the rules of the style or class, and the portraits of these great men. If to understand is to equal, it is by such pages that this distinguished writer, who has won a place among the first prose-writers of the last century, has really added something to the art of painting — that is to say — the manner of expressing it in writing.

Sainte-Beuve, FTomentin in Nouveazix lundis, VII (Paris); GoNSE, Eugene Fromentin (Paris, ISSl), with letters and im- portant inedited fragnaents; Les dessins d'Eugine Fromentin (London, 1S77. folio); Blanchon, Lettr&i de Jeiinesse de Fro- mentin (Paris. 19091; BnuNETlicrtE, Varietes Litteraires (Paris, s. d.): GiLLET, Euqi-ne Fromentin et Dominique in Revue de Paris (1 Aug., 1905).

LoOIS GiLLET.

Frontal. See Altar, sub-title Altar-Frontal.

Frontenac, Count Louis de Buade, a governor of New France, b. at Paris, 1622; d. at Quebec, 28 Nov., 1698. His father was captain of the royal castle of St-Germain-en-laye; his mother, nt'c Phelypeaux, was the daughter of the king's secretary oif state; Louis XIII was his godfather. By his valour and skill he won the rank of marshal of the king's camps and armies. He served in Holland, France, Italy, and Germany, and also in Candia where Turenne had sent him to command a contingent against the Turks. A brilliant military reputation, therefore, preceded him to Canada. During his first administration (1672- 1682) he built a fort at Cataracouy (now Kingston) to awe the Iroquois and facilitate communications with the West. To explore the course of the Missis- sippi, previously discovered by Joliet and Marquette, he sent Cavelior do La Salle, who named the country- watered by that river Louisiana, in honour of Louis XIV. Although intelligent and magnanimous, brave

and unflinching in peril, he was proud, imperious, and ready to sacrifice all to personal animosity. He quar- relled with most of the officials of the colony over petty questions: with his councillors, with the inten- dant (Duchesneau), with the Governor of Montreal (Perrot), and with Mgr de Laval, whose prohibition of the liquor-traffic with the Indians he judged harm- ful to commercial interests. The king, after vainly trying to curb his haughtiness, recalled him in 1682.

In 1689, when the uprising of the Iroquois and the Lachine massacre, in retaliation of Governor Denon- ville's treacherous deal- ing, threatened the ex- istence of the colony, Frontenac was sent to the rescue and was hailed as a deliverer. He had to fight the allied Iro- quois and English; but his bravery and ability were equal to the task. After d'Iberville's bril- liant exploits in Hud- son Bay, Frontenac divided his forces into three corps, which cap- tured Corlar (Schenec- tady), Salmon Falls (N. H.) and Casco (Me.). When, to avenge these disasters, Boston sent a fleet against Quebec (1690), Frontenac's re- sponse to the summons of Phipps's envoy was: "Go tell your master that we shall answer him by the mouths of our guns" — a threat which was made good by the enemy's defeat. In 1696 Frontenac wisely disre- garded the instructions of France to evacuate the upper country, which would have ruined the colony, and merely observed a defensive attitude. He dealt the Iroquois power a severe blow, burned the villages of the Onnontaguds and Onneyouts, and devastated their country. By his orders d'Iberville razed Fort Pemquid in Acadia, cap- tured St. John's, Xewf.iundland, and nearly the entire island, and took possession of all Hudson Bay Terri- tory. Frontenac died sincerely regretted by the whole colony which he had saved from ruin. His char- acter was a mixture of good and bad qualities. The latter were less evident during his second administra- tion and his talents rendered eminent services. He found Canada weakened and attacked on all sides; he left it in peace, enlarged, and respected. He has been justly called "saver of the country". In spite of his Jansenistic education and prejudices against the bishop, the Jesuits, and even the Sulpicians, he pos- sessed a rich fund of faith and piety. He was a faithful friend of the Recollects, and was buried in their church. Hopkins, Canada, An Encyclopedia of the Country (Toronto, 1890); Garneau, Histoire du Canada (Montreal, 1882); Ferland, Cours d'histoire du Canada (Quebec, 1882); Roche MO.VTEIX, Les Jt-suites et la Nouvelle- France (Paris. 1896), Chapais, Jean Talon (Quebec, 1904); Gauthier, Histoire du Canada (Quebec, 1876). LlONEL LlNDSAY.

Frowin, Ble.s.sed, Benedictine abbot, d. 11 March, 1 178. Of the early fife of Frowin nothing is known, save that lie is claimed as a monk of their community by till' liistnrians of the two great Benedictine abbeys of Minsicdcin in Switzerland and St. Blasius in Baden. The first authentic fact in his career is his election as