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FLORENCE

the townsfolk which paved the way for the establish- ment of the "Commune" was convened by Bishop Ranieri in 1105. About the same time they helped the Pisans in the conquest of the Balearic Isles (1114) asking no other reward than two porphyry columns for the great central doorway of the Baptistery (San Giovanni). By 1155 they had grown so powerful that they dared to close their gates against Frederick Bar- barossa. The noljles (magnates, grandi), forced to become citizens, were not slow in creating disturbances in the town by their rival factions, and in hindering the work of the consuls who chanced to be displeasing to them. In this way there was endless friction and strife, and thus was laid the foundation of the two great parties that for centuries divided the city, Guelphs and Ghibellines. The former was demo- cratic, republican, favourable to the papacy; the latter was the party of the old Florentine aristocracy and the emperor. In 1 197 the Tuscan League (in imitation of the successful Lombard League) was formed at San Ginesio between the cities of Florence, Lucca, Siena, Prato, San Miniato, and the Bishop of Volterra, in presence of papal legates. These cities bound them- selves on that occasion not to acknowledge the author- ity of emperor, king, duke, or marquis without the ex- press order of the Roman Church. At that time, in the interest of better administration, Florence abol- ished its old-time government by two consuls, and sub- stituted a podesta, or chief magistrate (119.3), with a council of twelve consuls. In 1207 a law was passed which made it obligatory for the podesta to be an out- sider. The legislative power originally resided in the Statuto, a commission nominated by the consuls. After the introduction of a podesta it was exercised by the priors of the chief guilds (the artes majores), seven in number (carpenters, wool-weavers, skinners, tan- ners, tailors, shoemakers, and farriers), to which were afterwards added thefourteen lesser guilds (the judges, the notaries-public, doctors, money-changers, and others). To hold any public office it was necessary to belong to one or other of these guilds {arti) ; the nobles were therefore wont to enter their names on the books of the wool-weavers' guild. The management of all pohtical affairs rested with the Signoria, and there was a kind of public parliament which met four times a year. Public business was attended to by the po- desta, assisted in their turns by two of the consuls.

Guelphs and Ghibellines. — A broken engage- ment between one of the Buondelmonti and a daugh- ter of the house of Amidei, and the killing of the young man, were the causes of a fierce civil strife in 1215 and long after. Some sided with the Buondelmonti and the Donati, who were Guelphs; others sympathized with the Amidei and the Uberti, who were Ghibellines. Up to 1249 the two factions fought on sight; in that year Emperor Frederick II, who wished to have Flor- ence on his side in his struggle with the papacy, sent the Uberti reinforcements of German mercenaries with whose aid they drove out the Buondelmonti and so many of their followers that the Guelph party was completely routed. The Ghibellines straightway es- tablished an aristocratic government but retained the Eodesta. The people were deprived of their rights, ut they assembled on 20 October, 1250, in the church of Santa Croce and deposed the podesta and his Ghi- beUine administration. The government was then entrusted to two men, one a podesta, the other a Capi- tano del Popolo (captain of the people), both of them outsiders; besides these the six precincts of the town nominated each two anziani, or elders. For military purposes the town was divided into twenty gonfaloni, or banner-wards, the country around about into sixty- six, the whole force being under the command of the gon/aloniere. The advantage of the new arrangement was quickly shown in the wars against neighbouring towns, once their allies, but which had fallen under Ghiljclline control. In 1253 Pistoia was taken, and

was forced to recall the exiled Guelphs. The year

1254 has been called the year of victories. Siena, Vol- terra, and Pisa were then constrained to accept peace on severe terms, and to expel the Ghibellines. In

1255 it was the turn of Arezzo; Pisa was once more de- feated at Ponte Serchio, and forced to cede to Florence the Castello di Mutrone, overlooking the sea. Hence- forward war was continuous between Pisa and Flor- ence until the once powerful Pisa passed completely into the power of the Florentines. In 1260, however, Farinata dcgli Uberti, leader of the outlawed Ghibel- lines, with the help of Siena and of the German bands in King Manfred's pay, but mostly by deceiving the Florentines into believing that he would betray Siena into their hands, defeated (4 Sept.) the Florentine army of 30,000 foot and 3,000 horse in the battle of Montaperti. The Guelphs thereupon chose exile for themselves and their families. The people's govern- ment was again overturned ; the citizens had to swear allegiance to King Jlanfred, and German troops were called on to support the new order of things. The podesta, Guido Novello, was appointed by Manfred. After the latter's death the Guelphs again took cour- age, and Guido Novello was forced to make conces- sions. Finally, in 126(3, the people rose, and barricaded the streets with locked chains; Guido lost courage and on 4 November, accompanied by his cavalry, fled from the city. The popular government of the guild-mas- ters or priors (Capi delle arii) was restored; Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis of France and King of Naples, was called in as peace-maker (paciere) in 1267, and was appointed podesta. Florence took again the lead in the Tuscan League, soon began hostilities against the few remaining tUiibelline towns, and with the help of Pope Nicholas III succeetled in ridding itself of the embarrassing protection of King Charles (1278). Nicholas also attempted to reconcile the two factions, and with some success. Peace was con- cluded (Cardinal Latini's peace) in 12S0 and the exiles returned.

The government was then carried on by the podestS. and the capitano del popolo, aided by fourteen buoni uomini, i. e. reputable citizens (eight Guelphs and six Ghibellines), afterwards replaced by three (later six) guild-masters, elected for two months, during which time they lived together in the palace of the Signoria. Nor could they be re-elected till after two years. There were, moreover, two councils, in which also the guild-masters took part. As a result of the assist- ance Florence gave Genoa in the war against Pisa (1284 and 12S5) its territory was greatly extended. "The victory at Campaldino (1289) over Ghibelline Arezzo established firmly the hegemony of Florence in Tuscany. In 1293 Pisa was obliged to grant Florence the right to trade within its walls. Fresh troubles, however, were in store for Florence. In 1293 the bur- gesses, exulting in their success, and acting under the influence of Giano della Bella, excluded the nobles from election to the office of guild-master. On the other hand, even the lesser guilds were allowed to re- tain a share in the government. To crown the insult a new magistrate, styled gonjaloniere di giustizia, was appointed to repress all abuses on the part of tht nobles. The latter chose as their leader and defender Corso Donati; the burgesses gathered about the Cerchi family, whose members had grown rich in trade. The common people or artisan class sided with the Donati. In 1295 Giano della Bella was found guilty of violating his own ordinances, and was forced to leave Florence. The opposing factions united now with similar factiong in Pistoia; that of the Cerchi with the Bianchi or Whites, that of the Donati with the Neri or Blacks. To restore peace the guild-masters in 1300 exiled the leaders of both factions; among them went Dante Ali- ghieri. The leaders of the Bianchi were, however, soon recalled. Thereupon the Neri appealed to Boni- face VIII, who persuaded Charles of Valois, brother of