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 ESSENES

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ESSENES

ence of creatures differ as different entities. Others, among them Dominicus Soto, Lepidi, etc., seem to pre- fer a distinction other than real. The Scotists, affirm- ing their "formal distinction", which is neither pre- cisely logical nor real, but practically equivalent to virtual, decide the point against a real distinction. Suarez, with many of his school, teaches that the dis- tinction to be made is a logical one. The principal arguments in favour of the two chief views may be summarized as follows: —

Thomists: (a) If essence and existence were but one thing, we should be unable to conceive the one without conceiving the other. But we are as a fact able to con- ceive of essence by itself, (b) If there be no real dis- tinction between the two. then the essence is identical with the e.xistence. But in God alone are these identi- cal.

Suarez: (a) A real physical essence is actual in the line of being and not merely possible. But this actual- ity must belong to it, as a physical essence ; for it is, ex hypothesi, neither nothing nor merely possible, and the actuality of an essence is its existence. Cardinal Franzelin cast the argument in this form: " Est omnino evidens in re posita extra suas causas, in statu actual- itatis, ne ratione quidem abstrahi posse formalem existentiam" (De Verbo Incarnato). (b) It is incon- ceival)le how the existence of a real or physical essence should differ from the essence of its existence.

These positions are maintained, not only by argu- ment, but by reference to the authority and teaching of St. Thomas, as to whose genuine doctrine there is considerable difference of opinion and interpretation. It does not, however, appear to be a matterof great moment, as Soto remarks, whether one holds or re- jects the doctrine of a real distinction between essence and existence, so long as the difference between (lod and His creatures is safe-guarded, in that existence is admitted to be of the essence of God and not of the essence of creatures. And this would seem to be suf- ficiently provided for even in the supposition that cre- ated essences are not distinct from their existences as one thing is from another, but as a thing from its mode.

Blanc, Did. de Phil. (Paris, 1906); Egidius, Tractatus de ente et esscntid (Thomistl; Feldner, Jahrb. fiir Phil., II, VII; FmcK, Onlologia (Freiburg im Br., 1897); Kleutgen, Die Philosophic der Vorzeit (Innsbruck, 1878); Lahousse, Prmlec- Hones hogicce et Onlologia; (Louvain, 1899); Lepidi, Elementa Philosophic Christiance (Louvain, 1873); Liberatore, Insti- tuiiones Philosophies (Prati, 1883); Limbourg, De distinctione essenticB ab existentid Theses Qualtiior; Locke, Essay Concerning Hunmn Understaruiing in Works (London, 1714); Lorenzelli, Philosophic Theoreticac Instituliones (Paris, 1896); Martineau, Types of Ethical Theory (1885); Mebcier, OrUologic (Paris, 1902); Mill. System of Logic (1843); Reid, ed. Hamilton, Works (1872); Rickaby, General Metaphysics (London. 1898); Rittler. Wesenhcit und Dasein in den GescfUipfen; Suarez, Disputationes Aletaphysicw.

Francis Avehng.

Essenes, one of three leading Jewish sects men- tioned by Josephus as flourishing in the second cen- tury B. c, the two others being the Pharisees and the Sadducees. Concerning their origin, history, and tenets there has been much inconclusive controversy. The only ancient authorities we have are a few para- graphs in Philo Judffus, a somewhat lengthy descrip- tion in Josephus, and a scanty notice in Plmy. The following synopsis is derived mainly from the first two. They are styled Esswi by Philo, who derives it from S<TiO!, "holy", and Esscei and Esseni by Jose- phus. Their number according to both authors was about 4000 and their chief place of residence along the west side, but away from the shore, of the Dead Sea. They al.so dwelt in other, mostly secluded, parts and small towns of Palestine; yet .some were found in cities. The sect arose about 1,50 b. c. (the first-named E.ssene is Judas, 110 n. c.) and disap- pcare(l towards the end of the first century a. d. They worshipped one God, Creator and Ruler of all things,

omnipotent and omniscient. Moses was held in very high esteem and to blaspheme his name meant death. The sun was held in such reverence as to awaken a suspicion of idolatry. An all-disposing Fate was ad- mitted, yet free will, apparently, was not denied. They refused to join in the Temple sacrifices through fear of pollution, though they sent gifts thither; it seems that no blood-sacrifice was offered by them, as they claimed that a reverent mind was the best offer- ing to God. The Sabbath was observed with most rigorous exactitude, not even the calls of nature being answered. Assembled in their meeting-places, where they sat according to seniority, the .Scripture was read and explained, generally in an allegorical manner, by some wise member. They washed frequently, as ex- treme importance was attached to ceremonial purity, and they followed scrupulously the prescriptions against Levitical defilements ; even for a j unior to touch a senior was pollution to the latter. What their eso- teric doctrines were is not known. Death was wel- comed, as they held "that bodies are corruptible and the matter composing them is not lasting, but souls are immortal and live for ever, and proceeding from the most subtle ether have been drawn into bodies as into prisons by some natural longing. But when they are set free from the bonds of the flesh then they re- joice as being freed from a long servitude and mount upwards. And agreeing with the opinions of the Greeks, they declare that the good dwell beyond the ocean in a place which is never oppres.sed by snow or rain-storms or intense heat, but is always calm and refreshed by a cool breeze breathing from the ocean. To the bad souls they allot a gloomy, tempestuous cave full of never-ending torments " (Jos., Bell. Jud., I, ii, 8). Some conclude from the words just quoted that the Essenes disbelieved in the resurrection of the body.

Among the virtues the Essenes cultivated especially obedience, truthfulness, continence, justice, and tem- perance; they paid great attention to the sick, respect to the aged, and showed marked kindness and hospitality to strangers. All men were regarded as equal, and slavery was abhorred as contrary to the law of nature. Those guilty of great crimes were pun- ished by long exclusion or perpetual excommunication which, since they were not allowed to eat anything prepared by outsiders, entailed always great hardship and often death. Philosophy was neglected as use- less and beyond man's capacity, but ethics was studied with zeal. They searched for medicinal remedies in nature, as they devoted special care to the sick irre- spective of creed, and investigated the properties of minerals. They laid claim to magical powers and ability to predict. For the latter some cases are given by Josephus, among them that of the Essene, Mana- hem, who foretold Herod the Great's kingship when he was but a boy without any royal prospects. All things were held in common, their very houses not being their own. They laboured principally at agri- cultural pursuits or made farm implements and house- hold articles, but never weapons of war, which they were not allowed to carry, except a staff for defence when travelling. Harvests and wages went to the stewards, who gave as each needed. Clothes and shoes were retained until worn out. No trading was allowed except barter. Anointing with oil was con- sidered a defilement. Servants were forbidden as tempting men to injustice. Their rulers or presidents were elected, likewise their priests — if they can he so called — and their stewards. In towns an officer was appointed to look after travelling brethren. One liundred members constituted a court of justice whose imanimous decision was irrevocable. The members were divided into four classes. The daily routine is given as follows: They were up before daybreak and spoke of no profane subject before the sun, and to it they addres.sed a prayer as if soliciting it to rise. Each