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 ESKIMO

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ESKIMO

tinians at Eskilso near Roskilde most probably traces its origin to him. Later he established the Pre- raonstratensian monastery in Tommerup, Skane; the Knights of St. John also settled in Lund during his time. There was also, in Seeland, an establishment of Carthusian monks, but only for a short time. The Cistercian monks were especial favourites of Eskil, who founded their first monastery in 1144 at Herivadum near Helsingborg, which was soon followed by one at Esrom in Nordseeland (11.54). From both of these various branches were established. Eskil corre- sponded with St. Bernard, whom he admired and revered. With a view to being admitted to the Cis- tercian Order he visited St. Bernard at Clairvaux in 1152. Bernard refused him admission, pointing out that his services as bishop would be more beneficial to the Church at large.

Hearing of Bernard's death (1153), Eskil made a pilgrimage to the saint's grave and thence to Rome, where all his archiepiscopal privileges were ratified by Pope Adrian IV (Breakspear). Returning he was imprisoned at Thionville (at the instigation of the Archbishop of Bremen?). In a dignified letter to the kings and the bishops of Denmark Eskil expressed his willingness rather to suffer innocently in defence of the Church's prerogatives than to be ransomed. Having obtained his liberty in 115S, Eskil returned home, where he found King Waldemar sole sovereign. When the latter took the part of ^'ictor, the antipope, Eskil, faithful to Alexander III, took refuge in foreign parts. Excepting a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, he lived in France (Clairvau-x), in close proximity to the pope. In 1164 he consecrated Stephen of Alvastra, a Ci.ster- cian monk, first Archbishop of Upsala. After Walde- mar's reconciliation with .\lexander III, Eskil re- turned home (1168). Subsequent to the solemn translation of the relics of the canonized (1169) martyr-duke, Knud Lavai-d (d. 1131), Waldemar's father, Eskil crowned the king's seven-year-old son at Ringsted, 1170. After another sojourn at Clair- vau.x (1174-76), the venerable archbishop received permission from the pope to resign and to nominate a successor. In the spring of 1177, in the presence of the king, numerous prelates, and a great concourse of people assembled in the cathedral of Lund, Eskil, hav- mg read the papal decree, declared that h3 resigned on his own initiative, laid the official insignia on the altar, and, all consenting, designated Bishop Absalon of Roskilde as his successor. He then retired to Clair- vaux, spending his last days as a simple monk. The Cistercians honour him as venerable. The question whether Eskil was married and had a daughter is a subject of controversy. Although the celibacy of the clergy did not generally obtain during his time, we may, nevertheless, infer from his strictly religious principles that Eskil did not ignore the provisions of canon law by marrying after his admission to Sacred orders.

Henriquez, ^ Mcnoloffium Cislerciense (Antwerp, 1630): SoMMELius, Disputaliones historicm dc incriti^ et ialis EskUli (Lund, 1764-6.')); Langebek, Scriplores Rerum Danicarum (Copenhagen, 1772-3), I, 43, 11, 619 sn.; SfUM, Hisloric af Danmark (Copenhagen, 1792-lSOO), V, VI, VII; Hei.veg, Den danske Kirkes // wforie (CopenhaKon. 1X62). I, 333-436: Olrik, Konge og Prtsslestand i Danmark (CopenhiiEon, lHi).'>), II. 20-92; JoKGENBEN, HistoTvske AihancJlinffer (Copenhagen, 1S98), I, 5-5S; Steensthup, Danmarks liiges Ilistorie (Copenhagen, 1901-t), I, 554-646.

Philipp Barom von Kettenbuko.

Eskimo, a littoral race occupying the entire Arctic coast and outlying islands of America from below Cook Inlet in Alaska to the mouth of the St. Law- rence, a distance of more than five thousand miles, including the coasts of Labrador, Baffin Land, and Ellesmere Land, with the west and south-east coasts of Greenland, the northern shores of Hudson Bay, and the Aleutian Islands, while one body, the Yuit, has even cros.scd Bering Strait, and is now permanently

established on the extreme point of Siberia. Tra- ditional and hi.storical evidence go to show that the Eskimo formerly extended considerably farther south along Hudson Bay and the St. Lawrence, and perhaps even into New England. With the exception of the Aleut, who differ very considerably from the rest, the various small bands scattered throughout the vast stretch of territory are practically homogeneous, both linguistically and ethnologically, indicating long ages of slow development under similar and highly special- ized conditions. In physique they are of medium stature, but strong and hardy, with yellow-brown skin and features, suggesting the Mongolian rather than the Indian, although there is no reason to suppose them of other than American origin. The only apparent admixture with the Indian occurs on their extreme southern frontier in Alaska. Owing to their constant exposure in the chilling waters, they are not long-lived. In character they are generally peaceable, cheerful, and honest, but with the common savage disregard of morality. The Aleut of the Alaskan peninsula and the Aleutian Islands speak a distinct language in two dialects, while all the others, including the Yuit of Siberia, speak practically but one language, in several dialects. The name by which they are commonly known is derived from an Algonkian term signifying "eaters of raw flesh". They call themselves Inuit, in various dialectic forms, meaning simply "people".

Living in a land of perpetual snow and ice, the Eskimo depend entirely upon hunting and fishing for a living, while the seafaring habit has made them per- haps the most expert and daring boatmen in the world. In summer they hunt the caribou and musk-ox on land; in winter they hunt the seal and polar bear in the water or on the ice floes. In travelling by sledge, and to some extent in hunting and sealing, they rely much upon an intelligent breed of dogs trained to harness. Their houses are grouped into little settlements never more than a day's journey from the ocean. Tho.se for temporary summer use are generally simple tents of deer or seal-skin. Their winter homes are either sub- terranean excavations roofed over with sod and earth laid upon a framework of timber or whale ribs, or are dome-shaped structures built of blocks cut from the hardenetl snow, with passage-ways and smaller rooms of the same material, with sheets of clear ice for win- dows. The roof of the snow-house is sometimes lined on the inside with skins to prevent dripping from the melting snow. Besides the bed platforms extending around the sides of the rooms, with the spears, harpoons, and other hunting equipment, the most im- portant items of furniture are the stone lamps, fed with whale oil, for heating, lighting, and cooking purposes. The characteristic woman's tool is the tdu or skin-dressing knife.

Their clothing is of skins with the hair outside, or of the intestinal membranes of the larger sea animals, there being little difference between the costumes of men and women. Tattooing is common among the women, labrets are used in some tribes, but trinkets are selilom worn and the face is not painted. Their food consists of meat and fish, commonly boiled in a stone kettle, with an abundance of bluliber and oil, together with Ijcrries gathered in the short summoi season. From lack of running water, crowded quarters, and grea.sy environment, they are as a rule extremely filthy in person and habit. They are very ingenious and expert in the dressing of skins, the shaping of their fishing and himting implements, and the con- struction of their skin canoes; they al.so display great artistic instinct and ability in the carving of designs in walrus ivory. The peculiar ICskimo kaiak or skii\ boat, made of dressed seal hides stretched around a framework of whale ribs or wood, with an opening in the top only large enough to accommod.nte tlie. fitting body of one man, is one of the most perfect ci>titri- vances in the world for water travel, being light, swift,