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ENGELBERT tation. The treatise was inserted by Gerbert in his "Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra" (St. Bla- sien, 1784, anastatic reprint, Graz, 1905), II, 287 sqq. WiECHNER. Geschichte des Ben-ediktimr Stiftes-Admont (Graz, 1874-1880), III, 1-30, 511-545; Idem, Klosler AdmorU und seine Beziehungen zur W issenschaft und zum Unterricht (Graz, 1892), 37-47; Fuchs, Abt Engetberg von Admont in Milthei- lungen des hist. Vereins ftlr Steiermark (Graz, 1862), XI, 90- 130; Michael, Geschichte des deutschen Volkes vom IS. Jahrh. bis zum Ausgang des Mittelalters (Freiburg im Br., 1903). Ill, 125, 248-251. 274-278; Ziegelb.vuer, Hisloria Rei Litlera- rice O.S.B. (.\ugsburg and Wurzburg, 1754), III, 175-180. MiCH.VEL OtT.

Engelbert of Saint-Riquier. See Angilbert.

Engelbrechtsen, Cornelis (also called Engel- BERTS and Engelbrecht, and now more usually spelt Engelbkechtsz), Dutch painter, b. at Leyden, 1468; d. there 1533; is believed to have been identical with a certain Cornelis de Hollandere who was a member of the Guild of St. Luke at .\ntwerp in 1492. He is said to have been the first artist in Holland who painted in oils, and to have been a profound student of the works of Jan Van Eyck. His principal paintings were exe- cuted in Leyden and for a long time preser\-ed in that city, which still possesses in its picture gallery his large "Crucifixion", with wings representing the Sacrifice of Abraham and the Brazen Serpent, and a "Pieta" con- taining six scenes from the Life of Christ. There is an important "Crucifixon" by him at Amsterdam, re- moved from the convent of St. Bridget at Utrecht, a " Madonna and Child " in the London National Gallerj-, and a "Crucifixion" in the Munich Gallery, and there are two double pictures at -\ntwerp. However, most of his religious works were destroyed in Holland during the iconoclastic movement in the sixteenth centurj-. He has been declared to have been the master of Lucas Van Leyden, but nothing verj' definite is known on this matter. Many of his pictures are signed with a curious mark resembling a figure 4 supported upon two swords, and others with a sort of star. He had two sons: Cornelis, known as Kunst (1493-1544), and Luke, known as Kok, born 1495. The latter came over to Eng- land during the reign of Henry VIII, and a pict ure signed by him is in Lord De L' Isle's collection at Penshurst.

Catalogues of Pictures at Leyden, Amsterdam, and Munich; Co.\w.\Y, Dutch Painiers: various articles in the Leyden papers; Bryan, Dictionan/ of Painters (New York, 1903); AUgemeines Kiinstkrlezikon (Berlin, 1870).

George C. Willlvmson.

England.—This term is here restricted to one constituent, the largest and most populous, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Thus understood, England (taken at the same time as including the Principality of Wales) is all that part of the Island of Great Britain which lies south of the Solway Firth, the River Liddell, the Cheviot Hills, and the River Tweed; its area is 57,668 square miles, i.e. 10,048 sq. m. greater than that of the State of New York, but 11,067 sq. m. less than that of Missouri; its total resident population in 1901 was 23,386,593, or 782 per cent of the population of the United Kingdom. The history of England will be considered in the present article chiefly in its relations with the Catholic Church—I. BEFORE THE REFORMATION; II. SINCE THE REFORMATION. The concluding section will be III. ENGLISH LITERATURE.

BEFORE THE REFORMATION.—For the history of England down to the Norman Conquest the reader may be referred to the article The Anglo-Saxon Church (in Vol. I, 505-12). We begin our present account of pre-Reformation England with the new order of things created by William the Conqueror.

Although the picture of the degradation of the English Church in the first half of the eleventh century which has been drawn by some authorities (notably by H. Boehmer, "Kirche and Staat", 79) is very exaggerated, it is nevertheless certain that even King Edward the Confessor, with all his saintliness, had not been able to repair the damage caused partly by the anarchy of the last ten years of Danish rule, but not less surely, if remotely, by the disorders which for many generations past had existed at the center of Christendom. Of the prevalence of simoniacal practices, of a scandalous and widespread neglect of the canons enjoining clerical celibacy, and of a general subordination of the ecclesiastical order to secular influences, there is no room for doubt. These evils were at that time almost universal. In 1065, the year of St. Edward's death, things were no better in England than on the Continent of Europe. Probably they were rather worse. But the forces which were to purify and renovate the Church were already at work. The monastic reform begun in the tenth century at Cluny had spread to many religious houses of France and among other places had been cordially taken up in the Norman Abbey of Fecamp, and later at Bee. On the other hand this same ascetical discipline had done much to form the character both of Brun, Bishop of Toul, who in 1049 became pope, and is known as St. Leo IX, and of Hildebrand his chief counsellor, afterwards still more famous as St. Gregory VII. Under the auspices of these two popes a new era dawned for the Church. Effective action was at last taken to restrain clerical incontinence and avarice, while a great struggle began to rescue the bishops from the imminent danger of becoming mere feudatories to the emperor and other secular princes. William the Conqueror had established intimate relations with the Holy See. He came to England armed with the direct authorization of a papal Bull, and his expedition, in the eyes of many earnest men, and probably even his own, was identified with the cause of ecclesiastical reform. The behavior of Normans and Saxons on the night preceding the battle of Hastings, when the former prayed and prepared for Communion while the latter caroused, was in a measure significant of the spirit of the two parties. Taken as a whole, the Conqueror's dealings with the English Church were worthy of a great mission. All the best elements in the Saxon hierarchy he retained and supported. St. Wulstan was confirmed in the possession of the See of Worcester. Leofric of Exeter and Siward of Rochester, both Englishmen, as well as some half-dozen prelates of foreign birth who had been appointed in Edward's reign, were not interfered with. On the other hand, Stigand, the intriguing Archbishop of Canterbury, and one or two other bishops, probably his supporters, were deposed. But in this there was no indecent haste. It was done at the great Council of Winchester (Easter, 1070), at which three papal legates were present. Shortly afterwards the vacant sees were filled up, and, in procuring Lanfranc for Canterbury and Thomas of Bayeux for York, William gave to his new kingdom the very best prelates that were then available. The results were undoubtedly beneficial to the Church. The king himself directly enjoined the separation of the civil and ecclesiastical courts, for these jurisdictions in the old shiremoots and hundredmoots had hardly been distinguished. It was probably partly as a consequence of this division that ecclesiastical synods now began to be held regularly by Lanfranc, with no small profit to discipline and piety. Strong legislation was adopted (e.g. at Winchester in 1176) to secure celibacy among the clergy, though not without some temporary mitigation for the old rural priests, a mitigation which proves perhaps better than anything else that in the existing generation a sudden and complete reform seemed hopeless. Further, several episcopal sees were removed from what were then mere villages to more populous centers. Thus bishops were transferred from Sherborne to Salisbury, from Selsey to Chichester, from Lichfield to Chester, and not many years after from Dorchester to Lincoln, and from Thetford to Norwich. These and the like changes, and, not perhaps least of all, the drafting of Lanfranc’s new constitutions for the Christ Church