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permission only to eight; among those who were re- fused was " loannes Douns". It is quite certain, too, that he went to Paris about 130-1 and that there he was at first merely a Bachelor of Arts, for the general of the Franciscans, Gonsalvus de Vallebona, wrote (IS Nov., 1304) to the guardian of the college of the Franciscans at Paris to present John Scotus at the university for the doctor's degree. The general's let- ter mentions that John Scotus had distinguished him- self for some time past by his learning ingenioque suh- tilissimo. He did not teach very long in Paris; in 1307 or 1308 he was sent to Cologne, probably as a professor at the university. There he died, and was buried in the monastery of the Minorites. At the present time (190S) the process of his beatification is being agitated in Rome on the ground of a cullus immemorabilis.

Duns Scotus's writings are very numerous and they have often been printed; some, in fact, at a very early date. But a complete edi- tion, in 12 folio volumes, was published only in 1639 by Wadding at Lyons; this, however, included the com- mentaries of the Scotists, Lychetus, Poncius, Cavel- lus, and Hiquteus. A re- print of Wadding's edition, with the treatise " De per- fectione statuum " added to it, appeared 1891-95 at Paris (Vives) in 26 vols. 4to. ^\'hether all the writings contained in these editions are by Duns Scotus himself is doubtful; it is certain, however, that many changes and adtlitioiis were made by later Scotists. A critical edition is still wanting. Be- sides these printed works, some others are attributed to Scotus, especially com- mentaries on several books of Scripture. The printed writings deal with gram- matical and scientific, but chiefly with philosophical and theological, .subjects. Of a purely philosophical nature are his commen- taries and qiurstiones on various works of Aristotle. These, with some other treatises, are contained in the first seven volumes of the Paris edition. The principal work of Scotus, however, is the so-called "Opus Oxoniense", i. e. the great commentary on the "Sentences" of Peter Lombard, written in Oxford (vols. VIII-XXI). It is primarily a theological work, but it contains many treatises, or at least di- gressions, on logical, metaphysical, grammatical, and scientific topics, so that nearly his whole system of philosophy can be derived from this work. Volumes XXII-XXIV contain the "Reportata Parisicnsia", i. e. a smaller commentary, for the most part theologi- cal, on the "Sentences". The "Qusestiones Quodli- betales", chiefly on theological subjects, one of his most important works, and the above-mentioned essay, "De perfectione statuum", fill the last two Tolumes. As to the time when these works were com- posed, we know nothing for certain. The commen- taries on Aristotle were probably his first work, then followed the "Opus Oxoniense" and .some minor es- says, last the "Qvia'stiones Quodlibetales", his disser- tation for th<^ doctor's degree. The "Reportata-"

may be notes written out after his lectures, but this is merely a surmise.

Scotus seems to have changed his doctrine in the course of time, or at least not to have been uniformly precise in expressing his thought; now he follows rather the sententia communis as in the "Qusstiones Quodlibetales"; then again he goes his own way. Many of his essays are unfinished. He did not write a sumnia philosophica or theologica, as did Alexander of Hales and St. Thomas Aquinas, or even a compen- dium of his doctrine. He WTote only commentaries or treatises on disputed questions; but even these commentaries are not continuous explanations of Aristotle or Peter Lombard. Usually he cites first the text or presupposes it as already known, then he takes up various points which in that day were live issues and discusses them from all sides, at the same time presenting the opinions of others. He is sharp in his criticism, and with re- lentless logic he refutes the opinions, or at least the arguments, of his opponents. In his fervour he sometimes forgets to set down his own view, or he simply states the reasons for various tena- ble opinions, and puts them forward as more or less prob- able; this he does especially inthe"Collationes". Hence it is said that he is no system- atizer, that he is better at tearing down than at build- ing up. It is true that none of his writings plainly re- veals a system; while sev- eral of them, owing no doubt to his early death, betray lack of finish. His real teaching is not always fully stated where one would nat- urally look for it; often enough one finds instead the discussion of some special point, or a long excursus iu which the author follows his critical bent. His own opinion is to be sought else- where, in various incidental remarks, or in the presuppositions which serve as a basis for his treatment of other problems; and it can be dis- covered only after a lengthy search. Besides, in the heat of controversy he often uses expressions which seem to go to extremes and even to contain heresy. His language is frequently obscure; a maze of terms, defini- tions, distinctions, and objections through which it is by no means easy to thread one's way. For these reasons the study of Scotus's works was difficult; when luulertaken at all, it was not carried on with the requis- ite tlioroughness. It was hard to find a unified sys- tem in them. Not a few unsatisfactory, one-sided, or even wrong opinions about him were circulated and passed on unchallenged from mouth to mouth and from book to book, growing more erroneous as they went. Nevertheless, there is in Scotus's teaching a rounded-out system, to be found especially in his principal work, a system worked out in minutest de- tails. For the present purpose, only his leading ideas and his departures from St. Thomas and the sententia communis need be indicated.

Systkm of Philosophy. — The fundamental princi-

Eles of his philosophical and theological teaching are is drstinctio formalis, and his idea of being. The 4i»