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 DESCHAMPS

748

DESECRATION

law of moral order. What this law is he does not clearly indicate ; he gives only some scattered precepts in which one may discern a noble effort to build up a Stoieo-Christian system of ethics.

The foregoing account may perhaps give the im- pression that Descartes was a great savant rather than a great philosopher; but the significance of his scien- tific work should be properly understood. What re- mains of value is not so much his theories, but the im- petus given by his genius, his method, his discoveries. His quantitative conception of the world is being gradually abandoned, and to-day men's minds are turning to a philosophy of nature wherein quality plays a controlling part (Duhem, L'^volution de la meeanique, Paris, 1905, p. 197).

The principal editions of his collected works are: "Opera Omnia" (Amsterdam, 1670-1683 and 1692- 1701); "(Euvres Completes" (Paris, 1724); Victor Cousin's edition (Paris, 1824-1826) ; and the edition by Adam and Tannery (Paris, 1896). Among the English translations may be mentioned: "Method" and "Meditations", by Veitch (London, 1850-53, New York, 1899); "Meditations", by Lowndes (Lon- don, 1878); "Extracts", by Torrey (New York, 1892).

Of the earlier biographies the most important is that by B.ULLET, ha Vie de M. Descartes (Paris, 1691); cf. Thouverez, in Annnles de Phil. Chrct. (1S99); briefer slietches with sum- maries of his philosophy are given in Bouillier, Histoire de la philos.jphie carltxienne (Paris. 1854; 3rd ed., 1868); Fischer, Gesch. d. iieuern Phil. (4th ed., Heidelberg, 1897), I; Fouillee, Descartes (Paris, 1S93). See also the following essays and monographs: Rhodes, A View of the Philosophy of Descartes, in Jour, of Spec. Phil. (1884), XVII; Mah.^fft. Descartes (Edinburgh and London, 1880); G.^ngdli, Descartes; an Out- line of His Philosophy (Bombay, 1900); Bain, Meaning of Existence and Descartes^ Coffito in Mind (1877); Gibson, The Reguta: of Descartes (Mind, 1898); Bowen, Descartes in North American Review, LVI; Discourse on Method in The Dublin Review, XXXVIII, 169; The Philosophy of Descartes in Brown- son's Quarterly Review, XXIII, 338; Mercier, La psychologic de Descartes in Rev. Neo-Scolastique (1896, '97, '98); Von Hertling, Descartes' Beziehung zur Scholastik in Sitzungsber. d. kgl. bayer. Ak. d. W. (Munich, 1898-99); Ludewig, Sub- stanztheorie b. Cart, in Phil. Jahrbuch (Fulda, 1893); Caird, Essays on Literature and Philosophy (Cllasgow, 1892); Cun- ningham, The Influence of Descartes on Metaphysical Specula- tion in England (London, 1876); Irons, Descartes and Modern Theories of Emotion in Phil. Review., IV, 1895. For the rela- tionship between Descartes and Newton: Papillon, Newtoti considere comme disciple de Descartes in Comptes-Rendus des Sciences Morales el Politigues, XCIX; Pauuan, Traite de pair entre Descartes et Newton (Avignon, 1763); see also monographs published in Revue de Metaph. et de Morale (1896), in commemo- ration of Descartes' third centenary. For extended bibliog- raphy, see Ueberweg-Heinze, Gesch d. Philos. (9th ed., Berhn, 190l), III, and Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psy- chology.

Clodius Piat.

Deschamps, Eustache, also called Morel on ac- count of his dark complexion, b. at Vertus in Cham- pagne between 1338 and 1340; d. about 1410. After having finished his classical studies at the episcopal school of Reims, under the poet GuiUaume de Ma- chault, who was a canon of Reims, he studied law at the University of Orleans. He then travelled for some time as the king's messenger in various parts of Europe, in Syria, Palestine, and Egypt; in the last country, it is said, he was made a slave. On his re- turn to France he was appointed gentleman-usher by Charles V, and was confirmed in this position by Charles VI, whom he accompanied in that capacity on various campaigns in Flanders. In 1381 King Charles VI made him governor of the town of Fismes, and in 1388 bailiff of Senlis; at a later date he lost the position of bailiff, together with his pension and his office at court. Deschamps was a poet of no little merit. His numerous poems, ballads, rondels, lays, and virelays are full of valuable information concerning the political and moral history of his time. He was an honest, religious man, and although a courtier was also a moralist who did not hesitate to condemn the injustice and wrongs that he had seen and expe- rienced. His style is somewhat heavy, but it is vigor- ous and not lacking in grace.

Sarradin, Etude sur Eustache Deschamps (Paris, 1879); Petit de Julleville, Histoire de la langue et de la litterature frariQaises (Paris, 1894), II; De Queux and Raynaud, (Euvres completes d'Eustache Deschamps (Paris, 1878-1891).

Louis N. Delamarre.

Deschamps, Nicolas, polemical writer, bom at Villefranche (Rhone), France, 1797; died at Aix-en- Provence, 1872. He entered the Society of Jesus in 1826; taught literature and rhetoric in several col- leges and wrote extensively. Apart from a few didac- tic and devotional books like "Cours ^leinentaire de litterature" (Avignon, 1860) and "Les fleurs de Marie" (Paris, 1863), his works are largely polemical and bear on all the burning questions of his day, the monopoly of the University of France, the state fac- ulties of theology, the Organic Articles, the liberty of association. Communism, Paganism In education, etc. The most important is undoubtedly "Les Society secretes" published after the author's death (Avi- gnon, 1874-1876), re-edited and brought up to date by Claudio Janet (Paris, ISSO and 1881). Deschamps sees in European Freemasonry, whose origin he traces back to Manichieism, a baneful force working, under the cover of philanthropy, not only against religion but also against the social order, patriotism and even morality. If his conclusions are severe, they are not advanced at random but are supported by numerous facts and grave authorities.

SoMMERVOGEL. Sift/, (/e /ac. de J., II. 1956; J.anet. introd. to his edition of Les Socittes secretes. See also Polybiblion (1874 and 1876).

J. F. SOLLIER.

Desecration, the loss of that peculiar quality of sacredness, which inheres in places and things in vir- tue of the constitutive blessing of the Church. When material objects are destined for purposes of Divine worship they are set aside with a view to this end by the solemn form of consecration or by the simpler formula of a blessing, so that they assume a sacred and inviolable character which renders unlawful their employment for profane uses. Now when they lose this stamp or character of sacredness they are said to become desecrated. As a general principle it may be set down that places and things, which have been either consecrated or blessed, retain their consecration and blessing so long as they remain, morally speaking, the same as they were in the beginning, and conse- quently, so long as they continue fit to serve the pur- poses for which they were originally destined. The opinion was formerly held by some that sacred uten- sils, such as chalices, which are anointed with holy oil should, before being sent to a mechanic for repairs, be deprived of their sacred character by a special ceremony of desecration. ThLs view was condemned by the Congregation of Rites (n. 2620, ed. 1900). Such a ceremony is entirely superfluous. For if a sacred utensil becomes broken and unfit for, use it thereby loses its consecration ; while if it is still fit for use but requires regilding, no ceremony could desecrate it. In this instance permission, express or im- plied, should be obtained from the ordinary to liand it over to a mechanic for repairs (cf. Gartlellini, Com- mentarj' on Decrees of C. S. R., 225). Should consecrated vessels become altogether imfit for altar use, i they may be melted down and devoted to profane uses. But vestments, altar cloths and linens must, in similar circumstances, be destroyed, because they retain the form under which they were originally blessed (cf. Gardellini, loc. cit).

The word desecration is commonly used in regard to churches, altars, chalices, etc. (1) A church losesj its consecration or blessing when the building is deJ stroyed either wholly or in greater pnrt, or when an; addition is made to it of larger extent tlian the original edifice. It does not become desecrated: (a) if a por- tion of the walls and roof falls in, pro\'ided the main.