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 COUNTER-REFORMATION

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COUNTER-REFORMATION

II. Low Ebb op Catholic Fortunes. — " From the time of St. Peter there has not been a pontificate so unfortunate as mine. How I regret tlie |iast! Pray for me." Such were the sad words of Pope Paul IV to Father Laynez, as he lay dying in August, 1559 (Oliver Manare, Commentarius de reljus Soc. Jesu, Florence, 1886, 125). It never looks darker, it is said, than just before dawn; the prospects of Catholicism at that moment did indeed seem gloomy to the watch- ers in the Vatican. Luigi Mocenigo, Venetian ambas- sador at Rome, sent thence to the seiguory this report on the situation: "In many countries, obedience to the pope has almost ceased, and matters are becoming so critical that, if God does not interfere, they will soon be desperate . . . Germany . . . leaves little hope of being cured. Poland is in almost as hopeless a state. The disorders which have just lately taken place in France and Spain are too well known for me to speak of them, and the Kingdom of England . . . after returning a short time since to her old obedience, has again fallen into heresy. Thus the spiritual power of the pope is so straitened that the only remedy is a council summoned by the common consent of all princes. Unless this reduces the affairs of religion to order, a grave calamity is to be feared." Another Venetian diplomatist (and these men were reckoned among the most acute of their day) wrote not long after, that Cardinal Morone, when leaving for the council, told him that "there was no hope" (Alb^ri, Relazioni degli ambasciatori Veneti, 1859, II, iv, 22, 82). Though Morone's prophecy was soon falsified by the events about to be described, his words must be considered as conclusive proof that even the brav- est and best-informed in Rome regarded the situation with profound discouragement, and it will be worth while to seek an explanation by going back to Mo- cenigo's words. At the same time, without attempt- ing an account of the Reformation itself, notice may be taken of what had hitherto been done in order to stem the religious revolution.

Germany. — Even before the Protestant Reforma- tion the holding of synods and provincial councils had been frequent, and they had always been attentive to points requiring reform. After it, the popes had sent thither a succession of legates and nuncios, such as Aleander, Campeggio, Cajetan, Contarini, Morone, who had upon the whole been men of conspicuous sin- cerity, vigour, and prudence. There had also been foimd among the German Catholics many men of splendid eloquence and zeal, of holy life and ceaseless labour, such as Tetzel, Johaim von Eck, Miltitz, Nausea, Jerome Emser, Julius Pflug, Johann Gropper, who had striven courageously and most effectively on the Catholic side. The Emperor Charles V (q. v.) had laboured ujion the whole with marked devotion in favour of Catholicism, though his Italian policy, it is true, had frequently been repugnant to the wishes and the interests of the Roman pontiffs. But now he was gone, and his successors, Philip II of Spain and Ferdinand of Austria, whether their energy and devo- tion or the power which they wielded be considered, were far inferior to him as champions and protectors of Catholicism. There had, of course, been some, in- deed many, improvements on the Catholic side. The German episcopate, once so worthless, now numbered many noble characters, of whom Otto von Truchsess, Bishop of Augsburg and afterwards cardinal; was the most brilliant representative. The Dominican and Franciscan friars had showed from the first to advan- tage; always ready to meet the foe, they everywhere encouraged and strengthened the men of their own side, ami prevented many defections (see N. Paulus, Die deutschen Dominikaner ini Kampf gegen Luther, 1903). The first Jesuits too had won many notable successes. Thus while on the one hand it was evident that there was still life in the Church of Germany, while there was no intrinsic impo.ssibility in carrj'ing

further the good that had begun, on the whole the out- look was as (lark as the retrospect. No bulwark against Protestantism had yet been found. Attempts to conclude a "religious peace" or an "Interim", at the various diets of Nuremberg, Speyer, Ratisbon, and Augsburg seemed to effect nothing better than to give the Protestants breathing time for fresh organ- ization, and so prepare the way for new attacks and victories. The Turks were pressing on Hungary and Austria from the south-east; the French, allying themselves with the Reformers, had invaded the Ger- man West, and had annexed the "three bishoprics" Metz, Verdun, and Toul. Charles had then made large sacrifices to get the Protestants to agree to " the religious peace of Augsburg" (1555), in order to com- bine all forces against France. The alliance was made, but was unsuccessful; the French retained their conquests; Charles retreated; the power of Catholic Germany seemed to be under an eclipse. Mocenigo might well say that " Germany leaves little hope of being cured".

Poland. — "Poland is in almost as hopeless a state." Protestantism had latterly gained ground rapidly. In 1555 a "national synod" had been held, which had requested the marriage of priests, Communion under both kinds. Mass in Polish, the abolishment of "an- nates". Such demands had but too often proved the forerunners of a lapse to Protestantism, and in fact in 1557 the weak King Sigismund Augustus had allowed "liberty" of conscience in Danzig and some other towns. There were waverers even among the clergy and the bishops, like James Uchanski, Archbishop of Gnesen and Primate of Poland in 1562. Fortunately the evil was not yet deeply rooted In the comitry. There had been no sweeping confiscations of church property, nor apostasies among the actual rulers. The great bishop and cardinal, Stanislas Hosius, was rising to fame, and behind him stood a number of zealous clergy, who would in due time renew the face of the Church. Still for the moment the state of the country was very serious. (See Krause, Die Ref- ormation und Gegenreform. im ehemaligen Konig- ! reiche Polen, Posen, 1901.) '

France and Spain. — "The disorders in France and Spain are too well known for me to speak of them. " The first open revolt of the Huguenots, styled the Tumulte d'Amboise, had taken place just before Mo- cenigo wrote. Hitherto. France though allying herself with the heretics of Germany, had preserved her own religious peace. But the converts to Protestantism were mmierous and well organized, and countetl not a few of the highest nobility and of the blood royal, especially princes of the House of Bourbon, to which the crown was destined to fall ere very long. The ruling sovereign, Francis II, was but a boy, and though for the moment the House of Lorraine and the family of the Guises brought victory to the Catholics, the position was one of evident danger, and was. soon to result in a Ion" series of wars of religion.

The troubles of Spain were in a sense rather foreign than domestic. It was true that there had been some defections, as Enzinas (Dryander), Servetus, and Valdez. Though :iot numerous, these had been suf- ficient to cause much alarm and suspicion, so nuich so that the Archbishop of Toledo himself, Bartolomd Carranza (q. v.) was put on his trial. (Cf. Scliafer, "Gesch. des sp.anischen Protestantismus", duter- sloh, 1902 ; Menendez y Pelayo, "Historia de los heter- odoxos Espaiioles", Madrid, 1880-82.) The proceed- ings lasted a long term of years, but in the end noth- ing could be proved against him. There was also danger from the Moriscoes. But what gave most cause for anxiety to serious thinkers was the linking of the Netherlands, Naples, and so many parts of Italy to the Spaniards. The latter were evcrj^vhere unjiopular, and the Reformers were begiiming, espe- ])ecially in the .N'etherlands, to pose as patriots, with