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 CONSTANCE

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CONSTANCE

ofAiistria (1589-1600), Jacob FugKer (1604-1626), Karl Theodor von Dalberg (1800-1817) and his Vicar-Gen- eral Heinrich Ignaz von Wessenberg. The last two es- poused the doctrine of Feljronius. Dalberg joined the Freemasons and the Illuininati, of whose real tenden- cies he was ignorant, and Wessenberg was heart and soul for the ant i-ecclesiastical reforms of Emperor Joseph II.

Tlie city of Constance received municipal rights in 780, became a free imperial city in 1192 and was one of the largest anil most flourishing cities of Germany dur- ing the Middle Ages. Its population is said to have exceeded 40,000. Here the famous Peace of Con- stance, a treaty between Barbarossa and the Lombard cities was declared in 1183 and an imperial diet was convened by Maximilian I in 1507. Commercially it was highly important on account of its manufacture of choice linen the famous tela di Costanza which was known throughout Europe. Its ecclesiastical renown it owes to the fact that it was the seat of perhaps the largest diocese in Germany and that from 1414-18 the Sixteenth CEcumenical Council was cele- brated there. For joining the Smalkaldic League and refusing to accept the Interim of Augsburg in 1548, it was deprived of its privileges as a free and imperial city and given to Austria by Emperor Charles V. It was unsuccessfully besieged by the Swedes in 16.33, pillaged by the French (1740-45), and finally joined to Baden in 1805. Its population in 1900 con- sisted of 15,917 Catholics, 711 Old Catholics, and 565 Jews.

Merck, Ckronik des Bisthums Konstanz (Constance, 1627): Neogart, Eoiscopalus Conslanliensis (to 1306), (St. Blasien. 1803 and Freiburg. 1862); Idem, Codex Diplovialicus (St. Blasien. 1791-5); Ladewig, Regesta Episcoporujn Con-stanlien-num (in German) von Bubidcus bis Thomas Berlou-er. 517-1496 (Inns- bruck, 1886-90); Ludwig, Die Konstanzer Grschichtsschreibung bis zum IS. Jahrh. (Strasburg, 1894). For the city of Con- stance: Eiselein, Geschichte und Beschreibung dcr Stadt Koyt- stanz (Constance, 1851); Beyerle, Konstanz im 30-jdhrigcn Krieg (1900); Idem, Grundeigenthumsverhaltnisse und Biirgcr- recht im mitlelaUerlichen Konstanz (1900-02).

Michael Ott.

Constance, Council of, a (partly) oecumenical council held at Constance, now in the Grand Duchy of Baden, from 5 Nov., 1414, to 22 April, 1418. Its forty-five general sessions were devoted to three chief purposes: (I) The Extinction of the So-Called Western Schism; (II) The Reformation of Ecclesiastical Gov- ernment and Life; (III) The Repression of Heresy. The article will also take up: (IV) Attendance at the Council; General Considerations.

I. The Extinction of the So-Called Western Schism. — In its attempt to restore to the Church her immemorialunityof headship theCouncil of Pisa (q. v.) in 1409 had only added to the confusion and scandal that afflicted all Christendom since 1378 (see Schism, Western). There were now three popes, the two deposed by the council (Gregory XII and Benedict XIII) and its own creation, Alexander V; the latter soon died (3 May, 1410) and was succeeded by Cardi- nal Baldassare Cossa as John XXIII. Obedient to a decree of the Council of Pisa that ordered a general council every three years, this pope convoked such an assembly at Rome for April, 1412, but with so little success that it was prorogued and again convoked for the beginning of 1413; its only important decree was a condemnation of the writings of Wyclif. In the meantime the treachery and violence of Ladislaus of Naples made John XXIII quite dependent politically on the new Emperor-elect Sigismund whose anxiety for a general council on German territorj- was finally satisfied by the pojie, then an exile from Rome. He convoked it from Lodi, 9 December, 1413, for 1 No- vember, 1414, at Constance, a free cily of the empire, on Lake Con.stance. It was solemnly opened 5 Novem- ber in the cathedral of Constance, where all the public sessions were held. The first public session took place 16 November under the presidency of John XXIII, and for a while it considered it.self a continuation of

the Council of Pisa, and John XXIII the sole legiti- mate pope. It was soon evident, however, that many members of the new assembly (comparatively few bishops, many doctors of theology and of canon and civil law, procurators of bishops, deputies of univer- sities, cathedral chapters, provosts, etc., agents and representatives of princes, etc.) favoured strongly the voluntary abdication of all three popes. This was also the idea of Emperor Sigismund (q. v.) present since Christmas Eve, 1414, and destined to exercise a profound and continuous influence on the course of the council in his character of imperial protector of the Church. The French deputies es- pecially urged this solution of the intolerable crisis, under the leadership of Pierre d'Ailly (Cardinal and Bishop of Cambrai), Guillaume Fillastre (Cardinal and Bishop of San Marco), and Jean Charlier de Gerson, chancellor of the University of Paris, rep- resentative of the French king, and known with d'Ailly, as "the soul of the council". The Itali.an bishops who had accompanied John XXIII in large numbers and stood for his legitimacy were soon rendered helpless by new methods of discussion and voting. Early in Januarj', 1415, envoys of Benedict XIII ajipcared, but only to propose a personal meeting at Nice of their pope and the emperor. Towards the end of the month Gregory XII (Angelo Corrario) offered, through his representatives, to re- sign, on condition that the other popes did the same. The execution of this project, henceforth the main object of the council, was long delayed for reasons that will ajipear below. Pressure was at once brought to bear on John XXIII by Emperor Sigismund and by the non-Italian members. His resistance was finally broken by the resolution of the members to vote by "nations" and not by persons. The legality of this measure, an imitation of the "nations" of the univer- sities, was more than questionable, but during Febru- ary', 1415, it was carried through and thenceforth ac- cepted in practice, though never authorized by any formal decree of the council (Finke, Forsclumgen, 31-33) and ojjposed by d'Ailly and Fillastre, who wanted, indeed, a considerable enlargement of the voting body, by the inclusion of professors (doctors) of theology, parish priests, etc., but not the abandon- ment of the traditional individual vote; the former was willing to compromise on a vote according to ecclesiastical provinces. The vote by nations was in great measure the work of the English, German, and French members, but the Italians did not long resist, and on this basis the council's work was organized and executed as follows: By each of the four nations repre- sented at the council, i. e. Germans (with whom were counted the few Poles, Hungarians, Danes, and Scan- dinavians), English, French, and Italians, several dep- uties, ecclesiastical and lay, were appointed to repre- sent the entire membership of the nation present at Constance. These national deputies met separately under a president of their own choice, but changed from month to month. Their decisions were reached by a majority vote, and were then communicated to the General Congregation of all four nations in which the vote of a majority (tlirce) was decisive. There seems also to have been (Finkp, Forechungen, 36-37) an important general committee appointed by the nations to prepare the subjects of discussion for the individual nations, and to act generally as intermedi- ary. At the seventh session (2 May, 1415) the right to vote apart was withdrawn from the cardinals; henceforth they could only vote like other individual deputies in the meetings of their respective nations. The Roman Church, therefore, was not represented as| such, while the small English nation (20 deputies, 3' bishops) was equal in influence to the entire Italian! representation, as individuals about one-half thel council. The decisions of the general congregations f were presented at the public sessions of the councill