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 CONGRESSES

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CONGRESSES

and vehement agitation of the assemblies against free, obhgatory, lay instniction had no apparent effect. The French, like the German congresses, received strong encouragement from the pope, and the bishops ardently promoted them. Nevertheless, owing to its composition, the French congress never attained the importance of the German assemblage. Although in- tended to be a union of all the Catholic forces of France, it drew together only the Monarchists. For although its constitution excluded politics, neverthe- less, as the circular of August, 1872, said, it supported the Conservative candidates as a matter of course. The connexion with the Royalists made the congress unfruitful also in social questions; its social political position was not sufficiently advanced, and it offended the classes that were fighting their way up. When it became evident that the Royalist party had failed, the congress declined with it. The sessions ceased when Leo XIII, on receiving the congratulatory telegram of the congress of 1892, expressed the hope that, follow- ing his wishes, they should uphold the Republican constitution. The place of the former organization was taken by the "Congres nationaux catholiques ". The first session, held at Reims, was a preparatory one; this was followed by two congresses at Paris, 1897 and 1898. Both their organization and aim were the same as those of the congress of the " Comitfe catholiques", but the political views held were differ- ent; the meetings were gatherings or "Rallies", that is, of Royalists who had become Republicans and of christian Democrats. The history of this organiza- tion is, briefly, that of the " Ralli<5s ' ' movement, and it went to pieces with the latter. A working together in the congress of those who were democrats from honest conviction, the politically indifferent "New Catho- lics", and the "Rallies", or "Constitutional Right- ers", who obeyed the papal command against inclina- tion and conviction, proved to be unpossible. The "Christian Democrats" met separately, in 1896 and 1897, at Lyons and received the blessing of Leo XIII. But it was found that the views of the members were too divergent to make a continuation of these assem- blies profitable. The meetings of the "Cercles d'ouvriers" also came to an end through the failure of the"Ralli&" or " Constitutional Right ". From the decade 1880-90 these circles, like those of the " Union des associations ouvrieres", were gradually trans- formed by their leaders into pious confraternities, and the clergy sought to control them more than was wise, making the members feel like irresponsible children. Most of the members of the circles were Royalists, and few of them obeyed the suggestion of the pope as sin- cerely as did De Mun. In 1892 the congress assem- bled for the last time; but even before this, of the 1200 still existing circles, a part had combined with the new diocesan organizations, and a part with the "Association catholique de la jeunesse frangaise".

Fourth Period of Development. — The fourth and latest period in the development of the Catholic Con- gresses dates from the last years of the nineteenth century. About 1890, the year when the "People's Union [Volks^Jereiri] of Catholic Germany" was founded, the Catholic social movement reached its full strength and became the leading factor among Cierman (,'atholic societies. Its influence was well shown by the multiplying of Catholic societies in all directions; it shaped the form and aims of organiza- tion, cheeked the spirit of particularism, induced the Bocii^ties to combine in a united body, and brought thousands of new members into the branch associa- tions, while directing Catholic organization more and more toward practical social work. The meetings of the congresses are the tangible sign of this social movement; their increase in strength and uifluence is furthered by the growing interest of the civilized world in all kinds of congresses. It is owing to the centralized, many-sided propaganda of the well-

organized "Volksverein", with its 600,000 members, that the German Catholic Congresses have been so successful. The aims of the societies are limited to social work of a practical character, and the annual meetings are held on one of the five days of the session of the Catholic Congress and at the same place. Since the Mannheim Congress of 1892 the meetings of the congresses have been attended by larger numbers of workmen than any other such conventions in Europe, from twenty-five thousand to forty thousand being present at the sessions, the number at a single session often reaching ten thousand persons. In Austria after two decades of hard struggle Christian socialism finally reached success. After 1867 it was for a long time almost impossible to hold a Catholic convention in Austria; now a General Catholic Congress is held every other year, while numerous assemblies convene in the different states forming the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy; the general congress of November, 1907, attained nearly as much influence over public opinion as the German Congress; a speech of Burgomaster Luegers of Viennastarted the " high-school movement " which has since greatly agitated Austria. Since 1900 a Catholic Congress has been held annually in Hun- gary; in Spain since 1889 Catholic assemblies have met from time to time; in Switzerland, after suspen- sion for a generation, the first general congress was held in 1903 on the basis of an excellent organization. In 1908 the Danish Catholics of the Copenhagen dis- trict met for the first time to discuss their school interests. Before this, in 1886 and 1889, they had met for anniversary celebrations, the first time, in 1886, in conjunction with representatives from Sweden and Norway. About the close of the nineteenth century a congress was held in Italy representing all the Catholic organizations of that country. Not only among the above-named great nations of Europe has Catholic zeal led to the meeting of general congresses, but on both sides of the ocean hardly a year passes in which the Catholics of some country do not unite in a public congress.

However numerous and large these assemblies, whether general or special, have been, they do not represent the whole number of Catholics who take an interest in social reorganization. Catholics have taken a prominent part in many movements which have an interdenominational, universal Christian, or neutral character, because this form of organization can lead to better I'esults. Among these may be men- tioned the "Christian Trade LTnions" of Gennany, the "Christian Farmers' Unions" of Germany and Aus- tria, and the "Soci^t^ d 'economic sociale et union de la paix sociale" of France, founded by Le Play, in 1856, with annual congresses since 1882. A German branch is the " Gesellschaft fur sozial Reform" (founded 1890), which gives its attention largely to scientific investigations, but has at times also had much influence on legislation; besides these may be cited the " Workingmen's Gardens", founded in 1897 by Ahh6 Lemire, with international congresses in 1903 and 1906; the work of the "Raiffeisen Bank" (inter- national assemblies at Tarbes, 1897, and Paris, 1900); the "Anti-Duelling Society", founded by Prince Lowenstein, the last international convention being held at Budapest, 1908; and the association for sup- pressing public vice, which held an international con- gress in 1908.

II. Intern.\tional Congresses. — The forerunner of the international congresses of the present was the Mechlin general congress of 1863-64. Since then international Catholic congresses of general scope have been abandoned as unlikely to be profitable, and it has been sufficient, especially as between Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, to invite a few foreign rep- resentatives. It was only by limiting the scope of discussion to a few topics, especially religious, that it has been possible to hold Catholic congresses of an