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 CONGREGATION

242

CONGRESSES

Cattolica, 6 July, 1907). (See Choir; Music; Sing- ing, Choral.)

Wagner, Origins ct Developpem^nt du Chant Litiirgique, tr. BouR (Tournai. 1904). 14 sqq. gives a good summary of the history of the earhest congregational singing. Two articles in the American Ecdesiastical Review (July, 1S92, 19-29, and August, 1892, 120-133) give history, references, limits of vernacular singing, and methods of training. See also Manual of Church Music (Dolphin Press, Philadelphia, 1905), 112-118; Church Music (Quarterly) (December, 1905), 21-33 for methods; also Dickinson, Music in the History of the Western Church, 223, 242, 376 for congregational singing in Protestant churches.

H. T. Henht.

Congregation of St. Francis de Sales. See

Francis de Sales, Saint.

Congregation o£ the Mission. See L.\zarists.

Congregations, Religious. See Religious Con- gregations.

Congregations, Roman. See Roman Congre- gations.

Congresses, Catholic. — One of the remarkable and important manifestations of the social and relig- ious life of the present day are gatherings of Catho- lics in general public conferences. This is the case both when these assemblies consist of delegates rep- resenting the entire Catholic population of a country or nation meeting to express opinions concerning matters close to its heart; or when they consist simply of the members of some one Catholic associa- tion who have come together for the advancement of the particular aims of the society. Taken collectively, these congresses prove that the life of the Catholic Church of the present day is not confined to Church devotions; that not merely individual classes and circles, but all Catholics, men of every rank and of every degree of culture, of all callings, all ages, and of all nations have been quickened to an unheard-of extent by the ecclesiastical movement of the nine- teenth century, and gladly co-operate with it. This movement in Catholic life has been made possible by the development of travelling facilities, the multipli- cation of social interests, and also by the political freedom of modern nations. But Catholics would probably not have made use of these aids in such large measure if they had not been stirred up by ex- traordinary zeal.

I. History. — The first large Congress was held by the Catholics of Germany. In the year of political revolutions, 184S, they founded throughout Germany local Catholic associations, called "Piusvereine" after Pope Pius IX, the Catholics of Mainz taking the lead. Their object was to stimulate Catholics to make use of the favourable moment to free the Church from dependence on the State. In accordance with an agreement made by a nimiber of distinguished Catho- lics at the festivities held to celebrate the completion of a portion of the cathedral of Cologne, August, 1848, these associations met in convention at Mainz, 3-6 October of the same year. In the neighbouring city of Frankfort the German Diet was in session. Only a few weeks before, this body had decided to separate the schools from the Church, in spite of the opposing votes of the Catholic deputies, and had filled the Catholic people with a deep distrust of the Frank- fort Assembly. A large part of the Catholic members of the Diet went to Mainz, and expressed their views, thus directing widespread attention to the convention and arousing the entliusiasm of its members, which reached its highest pitch when one of the deputies, Wilhelm Emanuel von Kettcler, the ])arisli priest of Hopstcn, arose and urged the Congress to give their attention to social as well a.s religious questions. Thenceforth the General German Catholic Congresses had a distinctive character impressed upon them. It became their mission to prove and intensify the de-

votion of German Catholics to their Church, to defend the rights of the Church and the liberties of Cathoiics as citizens, to preserve the Christian character of the schools, and to further the Christian spirit in society. At first the congress met semi-annually; after 1850, it met annually in a German or Austrian city. From the start it regarded the development of German Catholic societies into a power in national affairs as one of the most important means of gaining its ends. Consequently the Congress gave its attention not only to the "Piusvereine" but also interested itself in all other Catholic societies, e. g. the St. Vincent de Paul Conferences, the Gesellenvereine (journeymen's unions), the reading-circles, the students' corps, etc., and also encouraged the founding of important new associations, such as the societies in aid of German emigrants, the St. Boniface Association, the St. Au- gustine Association for the development of the Catho- lic press, and others. The end sought was to com- bine the general assemblies of as many of these socie- ties as possible with that of the "Piusvereine," or to secure their convening at the same time and place. Thus the Catholic Congress became in a few years and is still an annual general meeting for the majority of German Catholic societies. This appears from the programme of every German Catholic Congress. As long as the Catholic Congress was principally a repre- sentative general meeting of Catholic societies, its proceedings were chiefly discussions and debates and the number of those who attended was relatively small. This was the case in the first decade of its existence. Still even at this time one or more public mass-meetings were held at each Congress, in order to arouse the interest of the Catholic population of the place of assembly and its vicinity. The most celebrated address of the first decade was made in 1849 at Ratisbon by DoUinger on the " Independence of the Church." The most important of the early German Catholic Congresses was the session held at Vienna, 1853.

Owing to epidemics and political difficulties up to 1858 the congress met irregularly and the attendance decreased so that its future appeared doubtful. After 1858, however, the congress rose again in importance while at the same time its character gradually changed. It became a general assembly of German Catholics, and the attendance greatly increased. In these changed contlitions the public sessions devoted to oratorical addresses from distinguished speakers as well as the private sessions for deliberation grew in importance. In these years Catholic Germany could boast of several very eloc(uent orators, the best among whom were Moufang, Heinrich, and Haffner, theo- logians of Mainz, and after these Lindau, a m.erchant of Heidelberg. The participation by the Catholic nobility in the meetings made them socially more impressive. The most striking speech of this period was made at Aachen in 1862 by Moufang on the "Duties of Catholic Men." Among the subjects de- bated the school and education aroused the most feeling; in connexion with these great discussions great attention was given, under the guidance of Dr. Hiilskamp, editor of " The Literarischer Handweisor ", to the development of the press and popular litera- ture. Since the Frankfort Congress of 1863 the labour question has occupied more and more of the attention of the assembly.

The hope awakened in the hearts of Catholics by the apparently victorious progress of the Catholic movement in Western l']uro|)e gave special inspir.a- tion to the gatherings of these yeans. .\ similar con- gress was held by the Swiss Catholics; a more im- portant develiipinent was the resolve of the Belgian Catholics, insligated by the success of the German Catholic Congress near them at Aachen, to hold Catholic congresses for Belgivun and to invito the most distinguished Catholic men of the entire world