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 CONGREGATIONALISM

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CONGREGATIONALISM

attacked it on the ground that Molina and all the Jesuits denied efficacious grace. The latter replied that such a denial was impossible on the part of any- Catholic. AVhat they, the Jesuits, attacked was the Dominican theory of predetermination, which they regarded as incompatible with human freedom. The debates continued for five years and, in 1594, became public and turbvilent at Valladolid, when Antonio de Padilla, S. J., and Diego Nuiio, O. P., defended their respective positions. Similar encounters took place at Salamanca, Saragossa, Cordova, and other Spanish cities. In view of the disturbances thus created, Clement VI II took the matter into his own hanils and ordered both parties to refrain from further discussion and await the decision of the Apostolic See.

The pope then asked an expression of opinion from various universities and distinguished theologians of Spain. Between 1594 and 1597 twelve reports were submitted: by the three universities of Salamanca, AlcaW, and Siguenza; by the bishops of Coria, Sego- via, Plasencia, Cartagena, and Mondoiiedo; by Serra, Miguel iSalon (Augustinian Friar), Castro (Canon of Toledo), and Luis Coloma, Prior of the Augustinians at Valladolid. There were also forwarded to Rome some statements in explanation and defence of the Jesuit and of the Dominican theory. Clement VIII appointed a commission under the presidency of Cardinals Madrucci and Arrigone, which began its labours 2 Jan., 1598, and on 19 March handed in the result condemning Molina's book. Displeased at their haste in treating a question of such importance, the pope ordered them to go over the work again, keeping in view the docvunents sent from Spain. Though the examination of these would have required several years, the commission reported again in No- vember and insisted on the condemnation of Molina. Thereupon Clement VIII ordered the generals of the Dominicans and Jesuits, respectively, to appear with some of their theologians before the commission, ex- plain their doctrines, and settle their differences. In obedience to this command, both generals began (22 February, 1599) before the commission a series of con- ferences which lasted through that year. Bellarmine, created cardinal in March, was admitted to the sessions. Little, however, was accomplished, the Dominicans aiming at criticism of Molina rather than exposition of their own views. The death of Cardinal Madrucci in- terrupted these conferences, and Clement VIII, seeing that no solution was to be reached on those lines, de- termined to have the matter discussed in his presence. At the first debate, 19 March, 1602, the pope presided, with Cardinals Borghese (later Paul V) and Arrigone assisting, as well as the members of the former com- mission and various theologians summoned by the pope. Sixty-eight sessions were thus held (1602-1605).

Clement VIII died 5 March. 1605, and after the brief reign of Leo XI, Paul V ascended the papal throne. In his presence seventeen debates took place. The Dominicans were represented by Diego Alvarez and Tomds de Lemos; the Jesuits by Gre-

forio de Valencia, Pedro de Arrubal, Fernando de lastida and Juan de Salas. Finally, after twenty years of discussion private and public, and eighty-five conferences in presence of the popes, the question was not solved, but an end was put to the disputes. The

Eope's decree, communicated (5 September, 1607) to oth Dominicans and Jesuits, allowed each party to defend its own doctrine, enjoined each from censuring or condemning the opposite opinion, and commanded them to await as loyal sons of the (liurch the final de- cision of the Apostolic See. That dreisiim, however, has not been reached, and both orders, consecjuently, maintain their respective theories, just as any other theological opinion is held. The long controversy had aroused considerable feeling, and the pope, aim- ing at the restoration of peace and charity between the religious orders, forbade bj' a decree of the Inquisition

(1 December, 1611) the publication of any book con- cerning efficacious grace until further action by the Holy See. The prohibition remained in force during the greater part of the seventeenth century.

(See also Augustine of Hippo; B.\ius; Baxez; Grace, Controversies on; Molina; Thomism.)

Aug. Leblanc (pseudon. of Hyacinthe Sebry, O. P.), His- ' toria CongrrpntwnJim dr niixiliiK divinw graiitr sub Summis Ponlifinhiis Clrmmlr VIII rl I'nuJn V (Lolivain, 1700); ThEO- DORI-S El.HTUmti s l,isnu,lnn. of LlVINHS TE MeYER, S. J.). Hi^tov^'f rnith;,, ■ f-H!f!irn ,1,- thmur fjrnlxT aiijllus sub Summit PonUfinhu-^l l.,v„i< VIII.l fnnl., l-(\'cnire, 1742); Schnee- MANN, Die Enl:^l<Jinn\j u. wii!')r Knfwickhnig dcr thomi^tisch' moli7uslischcn Cmitrovcrsc (Freiburg. 1879; also in Latin tr., FreiburE. 1881); de Reonovi, Bafiel et Molina (Paris, 1883); BiLLUART, Le thomisme triomphant; Apologic du thomisme triomphant (Li^ge, 1731); Gayraud, Thomisme et Molinisme (Toulouse, 1890); Dummer.muth, S. Thom/t.s rt doclrina prrsmo- Honis physical (Paris, 1886); Frins. S. Thomcr Aquin. doctrina de cooperatione Dei (Paris. 1892); Duhmermuth, Dejenaio doctrina: S. Thonut, a reply to Frins (Louvain, 189.')).

Antonio Astrain.

Congregationalism. — The retention by the Angli- can State Church of the prelatieal form of government and of many Catholic rites and ceremonies offensive to genuine Protestants resulted in the formation of innu- merable Puritan factions, with varying degrees of radi- calism. The violent measures adopted by Elizabeth and the Stuarts to enforce conformity caused the more timid and moderate of the Puritans to remain in com- munion with the State Church, though keeping up to the present day an incessant protest against " popish tendencies"; but the more advanced and daring of their leaders began to perceive that there was no place for them in a Church governed by a hierarchy and en- slaved to the civil power. To many of them, Geneva was the realization of Christ's kingdom on earth, and, influenced by the example of neighbouring Scotland, they began to form churches on the model of Presby- terianism (q. v.). Many, however, who had with- drawn from the "tyranny" of the episcopate, were loath to submit to the dominion of presbyteries and formed themselves into religious communities ac- knowledging "no head, priest, prophet or king save Christ". These dissenters were known as " Independ- ents", and in spite of fines, imprisonments, and the execution of at least five of their leaders, they in- creased steadily in numbers and influence, until they played a conspicuous part in the revolution that cost Charles I his crown and life. The earliest literary ex- ponent of Independence was Robert Brown, from whom the dissenters were nicknamed Brownists. Brown was bom in 1550, of a good family, in Rutland- shire, and studied at Cambridge. About 1580 he be- gan to circulate pamphlets in which the State Church was denounced in immeasured terras and the duty was inculcated of separating from communion with it. The godly were not to look to the State for the reform of the Church ; they must set about it themselves on the Apostolic model. Brown defines the Church as " a company or number of Christians or believers, who, by a willing covenant made with their God, are under the government of God and Christ, and keep his laws in one holy communion". This new gospel attracted numerous adherents. A congregation was formed in Norwich which grew rapidly. Summoned before the bishop's court, Brown escaped the consequences of his zeal through the intervention of his powerful relation, Lord Burghley, and, with his followers, migrated to Holland, the common refuge of the persecuted reform- ers of all Europe. The Netherlands were soon flooded with refugees from England, and large congregations were established in the principal cities. The most flourishing Indciiendent ('hurch was that of Leyden uiuler the direction of John Robinson. It was to this congregation that the "Pilgrim Fathers" belonged, who in 1620 set sail in the Mayflower for the 5few World.

The successful establishment of the New England colonies was an event of the utmost importance in the