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sciousness of will-power in ourselves that we derive our notion of causation. Brown, however, while ac- cepting Reid's intuitional view of the idea of causality, inclines towards Hume in his definition of causation as no more than invariable sequence; he also differs from Reid in malcing will a modification of desire or appetite. The belief in the uniformity of nature, on which all scientific discovery is based, is held by Reid to be an original principle in the mind. Conscience, or the moral sense, is taken to be an original faculty by the Common Sense School in general, with the exception of Mackintosh, who derives the so-called faculty in great measure from the influence of social experience upon the will.

The psychological analysis of this school is valu- able; but its main principle has been considerably weakened by contact with Kantian criticism and the evolutionist doctrine, and with Hamilton lost much of its polemical effectiveness. "Tlie philosophy of Common Sense, devised by Reid as a safeguard against Scepticism and Idealism, was so transmuted l)y Hamilton as to lead back again to the conclusion that nothing can be known, and consequently that nothing can be affirmed or denied, beyond the fleeting phenom- ena of consciousness" (Laurie, Scottish Philosophy, p. 291). In France, Royer-Collard (1763-1845) in- troduced the principles of the Scottish School ; Jouffroy (1796-1842) translated the works of Reid; and Cousin (1792-1867) in his "Philosophic ^cossaise" praised Reid's philosophy in the highest terms. It may be safely said that the materialistic tendency of French speculation was checked by the influences derived from the philosophy of common sense.

HuTCHEsON, Essay on the Passions and Affections (London, 172S); Idem, Metaphysical Synopsis (London, 1742); Idem, System of Moral Phil. (Glasgow, 1755); Reu), Works, with preface, notes, and dissertation by Hamilton (Edinburgh, 1846); new ed. by Mansel (1863); Buffier. Premieres Verili-s (tr. London, 1781), "with a detection of the plagiarism, conceal- ment and ingratitude of Drs. Reid, Beattie and Oswald". JotjFFRoY. (Eiivres completes dc Reid (Paris, 1829); Oswald, Appeal to Common Sense (Edinburgh, 1768); Beattie, Essay on Truth (Aberdeen, 1770); Idem, Elements of Moral Science (1790); Priestley. Examination of Reid, etc. (London, 1774); Stewart. Complete Works (Cambridge, Mass.. 1829-31); ed. with additions and memoir by Sir W. H.amilton and com- pleted by Veitch (Edinburgh. 1858); Brown. Inquiry into Relation of Cause and Effect (Edinburgh, 1804); Idem. Lectures on the Phil, of the Human Mind (Edinburgh. 1820); Mackin- tosh, On the Progress of Ethical Philosophy in Encyc. Brit. (1830); ed. with preface by Wbewell (Philadelphia, 1832); Idem, two papersin Edinburgh Review. XXVII. XXXVI ; Ham- ilton. Lectures, ed. Mansel and Veitch (London, Edinburgh, and Boston. 1860); Idem. Btsays in Edinburgh Review (1829- 30-32); Idem. Metaphysics, ed. Bowen (Cambridge, Mass.. 1870); see Mill. Exam, of Hamilton's Philosophy (London, 1865); McCosH, Scottish Philosophy (London, 1875); Seth (A. S. Pringle-Pattison). Scottish Philosophy (Edinburgh and London. 1885 and 1900); Ferrier, Reid and the Philosophy of Common Sense (1847) in Ferrier's Works (Edinburgh and London, 1883), III, 407; see also Maher, Psychology (London, 1903), 33, 49. 102 sqq.; James, Pragmatism (London and New York, 1907), lect v.; Laurie, Scottish Philosophy in its Na- tional Development (London anci Glasgow, 1902).

A. B. Sharpe.

Commune, Martyrs of the Paris, the secu- lar priests and the religious who were murdered in Paris, in May, 1871, on account of their sacred calling. They may be divided into three groups: (1) those who on the 24th of May were executetl within the prison of La Roquette; (2) the Dominican Fathers, who, on the following day, were shot down at the Barriere d 'Italic; (.■?) the priests and religious, who, on the 26th of May, were massacred at Belleville. The revolutionary party which took possession of the city after the siege of Paris by the Prussians began, in the last days of March, to arrest the priests and religious to whom personal character or official position gave a certain prominence. No reason was given for these arbitrary measures, except the hatred with which the leaders of the Commune regarded the Catholic Church and her ministers.

(1) At the head of the first group of martyrs is the Archbishop of Paris, Monseigneur Georges Darboy, to

whom the discomforts of his prison life were pecul- iarly tiying on account of his feeble health. His fellow sufferers were; the Abbe Deguerry, cur^ of the im- portant parish of La Madeleine, an old man, well ad- vanced in years, but bright and vigorous; the Abb6 AUard, a secular priest, who had rendered good service to the wounded during the siege, and two Jesuits, Fathers Ducoudray and Clerc. The first was rector of the Ecole Sainte-Genevieve, a well known prepara- tory school for the army; the second had been a dis- tinguished naval oflicer; both were gifted and holy men. To these five ecclesiastics was added a magis- trate, Senator Bonjean. After several weeks of con- finement, first in the prison of Mazas, then at La Ro- quette, these six prisoners were executed on 24 May. 'There was no pretence made of judging them, neither was any accusation brought against them. The revo- lutionary party still heW possession of the east side of Paris, but the regidar army, whose head-quarters were at Versailles, was fast approaching, and the leaders of the Commune, made desperate by failure, wished to inflict what evil they could on an enemy they no longer hoped to conquer. The priests had, one and all, en- dured their captivity with patience and dignity; the Jesuits, their letters prove it, had no illusions as to their probable fate; Archbishop Darboy and the Abb6 Deguerry were more sanguine. " What have they to gain by killing us? What harm have we done them?" often said the latter. The execution took place in the evening. The archbishop absolved his companions, who were calm and recollected. They were told to stand against a wall, within the precincts of the prison, and here they were shot down at close quartere by twenty men, enlisted for the purpose. The arch- bishop's hand was raised to give a liist blessing: "Here, take my blessing", exclaimed one of the mur- derers and by discharging his gun he gave the signal for the execution.

(2) The Dominican Fathers, who perished the fol- lowing day. 25 May, belonged to the College of Arcueil, close to Paris. Their superior was Father Captier, who founded the college and under whose government it had prospered. With him were four religious of his order; Fathers Bourard, Delhorme, Cottrault, and Chatagneret, and eight laymen, who belonged to the college, either as professors or as serv- ants. They were arrested on the 19th of May and imprisoned in the outlying fort of Bicetre, where they suffered from hunger and thirst. On the 25th of May they were transferred from Bicetre to a prison within the city, situated on the Avenue d'ltalie. The ex- citement and anarchy that reigned in Paris, and the insults that were levelled at the prisoners as they were led from one prison to another prepared them for the worst; they made their confession and pre- pared for death. Towards five in the afternoon, they were commanded to go into the street one by one: Father Captier, whose strong faith sustained his com- panions' courage, turned to them: "Let us go, my friends, for the sake of God". The street wasfilled with armed men who discharged their guns at the prisoners as they passed. Father Captier was mor- tally wounded; his companions fell here and there; some were killed on the spot; others lingered on till their assassins put them out of pain. Their dead bodies remained for twenty-four hours on the ground, exposed to every insult ; only the next morning, when the troops from Versailles had conquered the Com- mune, were they claimed by the victims' friends and conveyed to Arcueil.

C.i) The third group of martyrs perished on the 26th of May ; the revolutionists were now driven back by the steady advance of the regular troops, and only the heights of Belleville were still in possession of the Commune. Over fifty prisoners were taken from the prison of La Roquette and conducted on foot to this last stronghold of the revolution. Among them were