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 CHINA

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CHINA

Kan soon, or Po-se and the Si-kiang. Of course with the facilities of modern navigation the sea-route is much used. The writer has known one of these hadjis. He could recite the Koran, though he did not understand what he said, nor could he read Arabic. Mohammedans have many mosques in the large cities of the empire, some of great importance at Peking, Si-ngan, Hang-chou, Canton, etc. In form they are much like Chinese temples, Arabic inscriptions being their characteristic feature. Many Moslems are officials of the empire, some occupying high positions, especially in the army. No accurate statistics are obtainable. According to M. Dabry, who is, however, a very unreliable author, there are in China between twenty and twenty-two million Mussulmans, of whom 8,350,000 are in Kan-su, 0,500,000 in Shen-si, 3,500.000 to 4,000,000 in Yun- nan. According to A. H. Keane, the numbers reach 30,000,000. Sara Chandra Das places them at 50,- 000.000, while the late Dr. Andrew Happer brings the figures down to 3,000,000.

History. — The question of the origin of the Chinese has been discussed by several foreign savants: J. Edkins (China's Place in Philology) seeks in Arme- nia or Mesopotamia a common origin of European and Asiatic languages. Gust. Schlegel (Sinico- Aryaca) made a comparison between the primitive roots of the Chinese and Aryan languages; the theory of an Egyptian origin has found favour with Kircher, Mairan, lie Guignes, and Pauthier. Terrien de La- couperie has pushed to the limit the theory of so- called Bak tribes migrating from Elam to the banks of the Hwang-ho, 2500 B.C., and taking with them the civilization of what was later China. The founda- tions of these clever and lightly-built theories are slight; the only alternative is to follow Chinese tradition with its legends.

The first man was P'an-ku. the Chinese Adam, followed by the thirteen celestial kings, T'ien-ivang, the eleven terrestrial kings, Ti-vxmg, and the nine hu- man kiiiL's, Jen-wang. These ages comprise the first eight of the ten periods or K'l, into which Chinese historians divide the early history of their country. Next come the Five Sovereigns: Fu-hi, inventor of the art of writing; Shin-nung, who invented the plough and taught the art of husbandry; Hwang-ti, tor of the fine arts, of ships, etc., whose wife taughl men to raise silk worms and to weave silk; Shao-hao, who established the different classes of civil and military officials; Chuen-hiu, author of the calendar. These were followed by the two great emperors, the sages of China, Yao (2357 2257 b. c), during whose reign occurred the great flood, and Shun. Yu. chosen by Shun as his successor, founded the first or Ilia dynasty (2205 B.C.), which comprised seventeen sovereigns, under whom the monarchy ie hereditary. The last emperor, Ti-kwei, fled to \:ni chao.— The second dynasty, known first as the Shane l 1766 B. c.) and after 1401 n. c. as the Yin. comprised twenty-eight sovereigns, and was founded by Ch'eng-t'ang. The last prince, Chou, was burnt to death (1122). — The third or Chou dynasty, which

began in 11-'-' n. c. and comprised thirty-eight sov- ereigns, was founded by YVu-wang, son of H'cn-wang. r other of Chou-kung. 1'nder this dynasty

appeared Confucius. Mencius, and Lao-tze. At the end of this dynasty China was divided into nine small states, (if these states only Han and Ts'in lasted lor any length of time. The dynasty of Ts'in prevailed over the other states. — The fourth or Ts'in dynasty, dating from 249 B. c. and comprising four sovereigns, was founded by Chwan Siang-wang, who reigned but three years. His son, Prince Cheng

(246), in the twenty-sixth year of his reign assumed

the title of Shi Hwang-ti 'first universal emperor), the sovereign having been hitherto styled Wang. Shi Hwang-ti may be considered as having consol-

idated China, doing away with the old feudal states, and dividing the empire into thirty-six kiun. Tostop the incursions of the Hiung-nu he built the Great Wall of China (Wan-li-ch'ang-ch'eng^ or wall 10,000 lis long), which extends from ('iii'-li to Kan-su. The three principal passes through the < ireat Wall arc the Shan-hai-kwan Pass, at the eastern extremity, the Chang-kia-k'ou (Kalgan) Pass, and the Kia-yu Pass at the extreme west. Shi Hwang-ti ordered all books to be burnt, to suppress all traces of former dynasties. — His house was short-lived, and Liu-pang, Prince of Han, under the dynastic title of Kao-ti or Kao Tsu, founded the fifth or Han dynasty (20G B. a), which comprised twenty-five sovereigns. This was a period of reconstruction. The classics were collected again; Buddhist works were introduced into the empire; relations were begun with the Roman Empire; the penal code was compiled; and examinations estab- lished. In a. d. 25 Kwang Wu-ti (Kien-wu) trans- ferred the capital from Ch'ang-ngan to Lo-yang, and the dynasty called the Former San {Ts'ien Han) or Si Han (Western Han) became the Hon Han lAfter Han) or Tung Han (Eastern Hani. — Sixth dynasty: In 220, under the reign of Chao Lieh-ti, the "empire was divided into three kingdoms (San-kwo-chi). — The three dynasties include: (1) the Minor Han in Shu (Sze-ch'wan); (2) the Wei, at Lo-yang; and (3) the Wu at Kien-kang (Nan-king). General Se Ma-shao having subjugated China, his son under the title of Wu-ti founded at Lo-yang the Western Tsin (265 . — The eighth dynasty, which became the Eastern Tsin (317), or ninth dynasty, when the capital was re- moved to Nan-king. These Tsin dynasties com- prised fifteen sovereigns. Emperor Kung Ti having been killed by Liu Yu, the murderer established at Nan-king the Sung dynasty (420).

This is the "period of division between North and South" (.Van Pe Ch'ao), and there were various dynas- ties: the Sung (420) at Hang-chou; the Ts'i, at Nan- king, the Liang, the Ch'en, the Northern Wei House of Toba, 3S6-532 at Ta-tung and later at Lo-yang), the Western Wei, Eastern Wei lend of dynasty. 550), the Northern Ts'i, and Northern Chou. Finally, the minister Yang-kien restored order, destroyed the Ch'en (583), and under the none of Wen-ti founded at Ch'ang-ngan the Sui dynasty (590), which com-

Crised three kings. [n618 KungTi T'ung was deposed y Li Yuan, who established at Ch'ang-ngan (Shen- si) the great dynasty of T'ang (620 907 l, i [prising

twenty sovereigns, restored order, and gave to the empire a period of unrivalled prosperity. The Em- press Wu-hou (684-705) who usurped the govern- ment, under Jui Tsung, was followed by a long series of weak princes, which led to the fall of this once brilliant dynasty. Then came the period of anarchy and civil wars called Wu-tai (five generations) or Ten States: Posterior Liang (907 21) at Lo-yang; Pos- terior T'ang (923-34), at Lo-yang; Posterior Tsin (936-44), at Pien-liang (K'ai-feng); Posterior Han (947-48), at Pien-liang; Posterior Chou (951 60, at Pai-liang. Finally, after the death of Kung-ti,

Chao Kwang-in was proclait 1 emperor, and

founded the Sung dynasty (960 1280), which com- prised eighteen sovereigns. The Sung were attacked by the Eastern Tatars or K'itans of Tungusic (Tatar) origin, who founded in .Northern China a dynasty, under Yeliu A-pao-ki 907), which as- sumed in 937 the dynastic title of Liao The capi- tal of the Liao was hi firs! Liao-yang, in Liao tung,

and was transferred by A-paO-ki to Yen-king I

king). They "ere expelled by another Tungusic tribe, the Ju-chen or N'iii-cheii I 1125), and retired to Kashgaria. where they created the empire of Kara- k'itai or Si-liao from the territory of the Kara- khanides; the Niu-chen, at lir-t vassals of Kon i became independent under Hien-phu. Their chief, i i ko-ta), founded the Kin dynasty (1113)