Page:Catholic Encyclopedia, volume 3.djvu/648

 CHARACTER

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CHARACTER

Ethology. — These efforts naturally suggest the question: Is a science of character possible? Mill devoted an important section in Book VI of his "Logic" to answering this query. He argues that there may be a true science of human nature, though not, as in the case of the physical sciences, an exact science. The laws which it can formulate are only approximate generalizations expressive of tendencies. It may not attempt exact predictions, owing to the complexity and uncertainty of the causes at work. Though mankind have not one universal character, there exist universal laws of the formation of charac- ter. The ascertainment of these laws constitutes the object of the science of ethology. The phenomena being so comolex the method of investigation must be deductive. We have to draw inferences from general psychological principles, and then to verify them by study of concrete individual cases.

It is very unwise to lay down limits to the progress of knowledge; but it may be affirmed that, at all events, we have at present nothing approximating to a science of character. As we have said, there is already in existence a considerable literature devoted to the psychological analysis of the constituents of the different forms of character, to the study of the gen- eral conditions of its growth, and to the classification of types of character. But the results, as yet reached, have little claim to the title of a science. There are moreover two obstacles, which though not, perhaps, absolutely fatal to the possibility of such a science are graver difficulties than Mill realized. Firstly, there is the element of individuality lying at the root of each character and variously determining its growth, even in like circumstances, as we see in two children of the same family. The mistaken view as to the original equality and similarity of different minds naturally involved an erroneous under-estimate of this difficulty. Secondly, there is the fact of free-will, denied by Mill. We do not maintain that free-will is irreconcilable with a science whose laws are approximate gener- alizations as Mill conceived those of ethology to be. All anti-determinists allow enough of uniformity in the influence of motive upon action to satisfy this con- dition. Still the admission of free-will in the build- ing up of character does indisputably increase the unpredictableness of future conduct and consequently of a science of character.

Ethics and Character. — Whilst psychology in- vestigates the growth of different types of character, ethics considers the relative value of such types and the virtues which constitute them. The problem of the true moral ideal is, in some ethical systems mainly, and in all systems partially, a question of the relative value of different types of character. The effect on the agent's character of a particular form of conduct is a universally accepted test of its moral quality. Different systems of ethics emphasize the importance of different virtues in the constitution of the ideal moral character. With the Utilitarian, who places the ethical end in the maximum of temporal liappiness for the whole community, benevolence will form the primary element in the ideal character. For the Stoic, fortitude and self-control are the chief excellences. The egoistic Hedonist would seem bound to praise enlightened prudence as the highest virtue. For the Christian, Christ is, of course, the true example of ideal character. The vast multitude of varied types of moral perfection presented to us in the lives of the saints who have striven to copy Him show the infinite many-sidedness and rich fruitfulness of that ideal. In all conceptions of ideal character strength forms an essential feature. Firmness of will, fortitude, constancy in adhering to principle or in pursuit of a noble aim hold so important a place that in common language to be a man of character is frequently equivalent to being capable of adhering to a fixed purpose. But strength of this kind may

easily degenerate into irrational obstinacy or narrow fanaticism. Another essential is the virtue of justice, the constant, practical recognition of the rights and claims of others — involving, of course, all our duties towards Almighty God. In addition to these, habits of charity and magnanimity, with temperance and self-restraint in the control of our lower appetencies, will be included. Finally, the richer the culture of the mind, the larger the intellectual horizon, the broader the sympathies, and the more balanced the springs of action in the soul, the more will the character approxi- mate to the ideal of human perfection.

Education and Character. — The true aim of education is not merely the cultivation of the intellect but also the formation of moral character. Increased intelligence or physical skill may as easily be em- ployed to the detriment as to the benefit of the com- munity, if not accompanied by improved will. Both do not necessarily go together. As it is the function of ethics to determine the ideal of human character, so it is the business of the theory or science of educa- tion to study the processes by which that end may be attained and to estimate the relative efficiency of different educational systems and methods in the prosecution of that end. Finally it is the duty of the art of education to apply the conclusions thus reached to practice and to adapt the available machin- ery to the realization of the true purpose of education in the formation of the highest type of ideal human character.

Carpenter, Principles of Mental Physiology (London. 18761; 245-267, 336-370; Bain. Study of Character (London, 1S61); Hkrbakt, The Science of Education, tr. Felkin (London and New York, 1897); Malapert, Les elancnts du caractcre et leurs lois de combinaison (Paris, 1906); Paulhan. Les carac- tcrcs (Paris, 1902); Fouili.ee, Temperament et caractcre selon les indirtdus. les seres, et les races (Paris. 19011; Qi'EYRat, Les caracteres et Veducation morale (Paris, 1S96); Perez, Le caraetire de V enfant a I'homme (Paris. 1S92); Etmietj, Le gouvernement de soi-mime (Paris, 1907) ; Ellis, The Education of Character (London, 1856).

Michael Maheb.

Character (in Catholic Theology) indicates a special effect produced by three of the sacraments, viz. Baptism, Confirmation, and Holy orders. This special effect is called the sacramental character. The term implies a relation (as will be explained below) to a term used in the Epistle to the Hebrews (i, 3) concerning the Son of God, who is there de- scribed as the XapaKT-qp T77S vnoaTdtTews aiVrou, or "figure [figura] of the Father's substance". In Protestant theology, the term character is used in another sense in treatises concerning the Blessed Trinity; the phrase "hypostatic character" being employed to signify the distinctive characteristic (or what "Catholic theologians call the proprietas per- sonalis) of each of the Three Divine Persons. Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. Here we are concerned only with the sense of the word in Catholic theology, that is. with sacramental character.

Sacramental character means a special super- natural and ineffaceable mark, or seal, or distinction, impressed upon the soul by each of the Sacraments of Baptism, Confirmation, and Holy orders: and it is by reason of this ineffaceable murk that none of these three sacraments may be administered more than once to the same person. This is express Catholic doctrine declared both in the Council of Florence (Sess. ult.. Deeret. Eugenii IV, § 5) and in the Council

of Trent (Sess. VII, can. ix. and Sess. XXIII, cap. Lv and can. iv). "If any one shall say that in three sacraments, viz. Baptism, Confirmation, ami Holy orders, there is not a character impressed upon the soul, that is a certain spiritual and ineffaceable mark [signvm], whence these sacraments cannot be iterated, let him lie anathema" (Concil. Trid Sess.

ult., can. vii). If, indeed, there be grave doubt

whether any one of these Bacraments has really been administered, or whether the manner of its adminis-