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CARMELITE

to the rank of a theological school came to naught. The majority of lecturers and writers belonged to the Thomistic school, especially after the great contro- versies on grace had compelled various orders to choose sides. This tendency became so intense that the Carmelite Salmanticenses made it their duty to follow the teaching of the Angelical Doctor even in the minutest details. Controversy was inaugurated by Guy de Perpignan, general from 1318-20, author of "Summa de hseresibus"; the subject was taken up anew at the time of the Wycliffite troubles and ulti- mately led to the important works of Thomas Netter de Walden, the "Doctrinale" and "De Sacramentis et Sacramentalibus", which proved a gold-mine for controversialists for several centuries. No epoch- making work was done at the time of the Reforma- tion, and the order lost all its northern and the greater part of its German provinces. Although few Car- melite controversialists are to be found on the Catho- lic side (the best known being Evrard Billick), there were hardly any prominent members among those who lost their faith.

Mystical Theology. — Although Scholastic philoso- phy and theology, as well as moral theology, have found some of their chief exponents among the Car- melites (e. g. the Salmanticenses), other branches of science being less generally cultivated, the field on which absolutely fresh ground was opened by them is mystical theology. During the Middle Ages this subject had been treated only in so far as the ordinary course of studies required, and those of the friars who wrote on it were few and far between, nor do they seem to have exercised much influence. All this was changed with the establishment of the Teresian Re- form. As has already been said, St. Teresa was led, unknown to herself, to the highest planes of the mys- tical life. With her marvellous gift of introspection and analysis, and her constant fear of swerving, be it ever so little, from the teaching of the Church, she subjected her own personal experiences to severe scrutiny, and ever sought the advice and direction of learned priests, chiefly of the Dominican Order. When St. John of the Cross joined the reform, he. fresh from the lecture-rooms at Salamanca and trained in the philosophy and theology of St. Thomas, was able to give her light on the phenomena of psychol ogy and Divine grace. Both of these saints have left writings on mystical theology, Teresa recording and explaining in simple but telling words her own experiences. John taking up the matter mure in the abstract sense; still some of his writings, particularly tie " \seeiit of Mount Carmel", might almost be con sidered a commentary on the life and the Interior

Castle" of St. Teresa. Then' is no evidence that he- had derived his knowledge from study; he was un- acquainted with the works of St. Bernard, Hugh of St. Victor, < lerson, and the Low < lerman mystics, and knew nothing of the mystical school of the German Dominicans; to have known St. Augus

tine and the other fathers only in SO far as the Brevi ary and theological textbooks contained extracts from their writings. He was therefore in no way in- fluenced by the views of earlier mystics, and had no difficulty in keeping aloof from the beaten track, but he evolved his system from his own and St. Teresa's

personal experience as seen in the litffit of Scholastic

theology, and with constant reference to the v,

Holy Scripture. For the analogies and allegories of

previous mystics he had no taste, and nothing was farther from him than the wish to penetrate tni a

crets of Heaven and gaze behind Divine revelal

An order which gives such prominence to the con- templative life could not but take up the subject and study it under all its aspects, Tie experimental part, which of course docs not depend on the will of the in- dividual, but which, nevertheless, is assisted by a cer- tain predisposition and preparation, found at all

times a home not only in the "deserts" and the con- vents of Carmelite nuns, but in other houses as well; the annals of the order are full of biographies of pro- found mystics. Considering the danger of self-decep- tion and diabolical illusion which necessarily besets the path of the mystic, it is surprising how free the Carmelite Order has remained from such blots. Rare instances are on record of friars or nuns who left the safe ground for the crooked ways of a false mysticism. Much of this indemnity from error must be ascribed to the training directors of souls receive, which en- ables them to discern almost from the outset what is safe from what is dangerous. The symptoms of the influence of good and evil spirits have been explained so clearly by St. Teresa and St. John of the Cross, and a prudent reserve in all that does not tend directly to the advancement of virtue has been so urgently counselled, that error can creep in only where there is a want of openness and simplicity on the part of the subject. Hence, among t he great number of mys- tics there have been but very few whose mysticism is open to question. Several great theologians en- deavoured to reduce mystical theology to a science. Among these must be reckoned Jerome Gratian, the confessor and faithful companion of St. Teresa; Thomas of Jesus, who represented both sides of the Carmelite life, the active part as organizer of the mis- sions of the Universal Church as well as of his order, and the contemplative part as founder of the "des- erts". His great works on mystical theology were collected and printed at the bidding of Urban VIII; Philip of the Blessed Trinity (1603-71), whose "Summa theologies mystics" may be taken as the authoritative utterance of the order on this subject; Anthony of tin Holy tihost. Bishop of Angola (d. 1677), author of a handbook for the use of directors of souls, entitled " Directorium mysticum "; Anthony of the Annunciation (d. 1714). and. finally, Joseph of the Holy Ghost (d. 1739), who wrote a large work on mystical theology in three folio volumes; all these and many more strictly adhered to the principles of St. Teresa and St. John of the ( ross and to the teach- ing of St. Thomas Aquinas. The ascetic part was not less cultivated. For elevation of principles and lucid- ity of exposition it would be difficult to surpass Ven. John of Jesus Mary. The difficult art of obeying and the more difficult one of commanding have been dealt with in a masterly manlier by ModestUS a S. Amabili (d. 1684). The ( lalced < larmelites, too, have furnished excellent works on different branches of mystical the- ology.

/ utindalwns nj 11 omen. — The Carmelite nuns estab- lished by St. Teresa spread with marvellous rapidity. Such was the veneration in which the foundress was held in Spain during her life-time that she received more requests for foundations than she could satisfy. Although very careful in the selection of superiors lor new convents she had not always t he most capa- ble persons at her disposal and complained in several instances of the lack of prudence or the overruling spirit of some prioresses; she even found that some went so far as to tamper with t he constitutions. Such incidents may be unavoidable during the first stage of a new order, but Teresa strove to counteract them

by detailed instructions on the canonical visitation of nvents, She desired one of her favourite sub- jects, Ven. Anne of Jesus (l.obera. b. 1545; d. 1

March, 1621 I, prioress of Granada to succeed her in the position oi "foundress" of the order. Hence, when Nicold Doria changed the manner of govern- ment of the Discalced Carmelites, ^nne oi Jesus sub- mitted the Constitutions ol SI reress (already i' i ed by the General ' hapb i oi 1581 I to tic Holy See for approbation. Certain modifications having

been introduced by successive popes, Doria PI

to have anything further to do with the nuns. He successors, however, reinstated them, but main-