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 CARMEL

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CARMEL

said, taken up by Theodulf, Bishop of Orleans, who, both by his own diocesan enactments and by the ad- vice which he gave the emperor, proved his right to t he title of Alcuin's successor. Alcuin. himself, after his retirement to the monastery of Tours, devoted his attention almost exclusively to monastic education and the transcription of liturgical and theological works. Whatever love he had forthe classics changed towards the end of his life into a deep-seated suspicion of all "pagan literature." In this he offers a striking contrast with Lupus Servatus, a disciple of Rhabanus, wild, as Abbot of Ferrieres. early in the ninth century encouraged and promoted the study of the pagan classics with all the ardour of a fifteenth century Humanist. Through the influence of Alcuin, Theo- dulf. Lupus and others, the Carlovingian revival spread to Reims. Auxerre, Laon, ami Chartres, where even before the schools of Paris had come into prominence, the foundations of scholastic theology and philosophy were laid. In Southern Germany and Switzerland the Carlovingian revival was felt before the close of the eighth century in Rheinau, Reichenau, and St. Gall, and early in the following century in Northern Italy, especially in Pavia and Bobbio. Un- der the successors of Charlemagne there sprang up the schools of Utrecht. Liege, and St. Laurent in the Low Countries which continued the movement.

With the extension and promotion of the Carlovin- gian revival of education are associated the names of the Irish teachers who were Alcuin's rivals and who are certainly entitled with him to a share in the credit of having been the first masters of the schools. Ac- cording to the St. Gall chronicler who wrote the his- tory of Charles the < ireat, two Irish monks arrived in France before Alcuin had received Charlemagne's invi- tation, and having made known somewhat boastfully their desire to teach wisdom, were received by the emperor with honour, and one of them placed at the head of the palace school. The story, however, is not accepted as reliable. We know for certain that after Alcuin left the court of Charlemagne, Clement the Irishman succeeded him as master of the palace school, and that he had pupils sent to him even from the monastery of Fulda. The grammarian, Cruindmelus, the poet Dungal, and Bishop Donatus of Fiesole were among the many Irish teachers on the Continent who enjoyed the favour of Charlemagne. Indeed, the em- peror, according to Einhard, " loved the strangers "and "had the Irish in special esteem". His successors, likewise, invited the Irish teachers to their court. Louis the Pious was the patron of the Irish geographer Dicuil, Lothair II stood in a similar relation to the Irish poet and Scribe Sedulius, founder of the school at Liege, and Charles the Bald equalled his grand- father in his affectionate esteem for the Irish teach- ers. Under him Elias taught at Laon, Dunchad at Reims, Israel at Auxerre, and, the greatest of all the Irish scholars, John Scotus F>iugena, was head of the palace school. Naturally the Irish teachers flocked to tli.' places already known to them by the mission- ary activity of their fellow-countrymen of former t ions. We find them at Reichenau, St. Gall, and Bobbio, "a whole herd of philosophers" as a ninth century writer expresses it. Every monastery or Oral school at which they appeared soon showed the effect of their influence. To the curriculum al- ready in vogue in the Carlovingian Schools the Irish teachers added the study of ( ireek, and wherever they taught philosophy or theology (dialectic and the in- terpretation of the Scriptures) they drew largely from the writings of the neo-Platonists and from the works of the Greek Fathers.

With regard to the details of schoolwork in the in- stitutions founded or reformed by Charlemagne, the chronicles of the time do not furnish us as much in- formation as one would desire. We know that the course of studies in the town and village schools (per

villas- et vicos) comprised at least the elements of Christian Doctrine, plain-song, the rudiments of grammar, and perhaps, where the influence of St. Benedict's rule was still felt, some kind of manual training. In the monastic and cathedral schools the curriculum included grammar (corresponding to what we now call language-work in general, as well as the study of poetry), rhetoric, dialectic, geometry, arith- metic, music and astronomy. The text -book in these .subjects was, wherever the Irish teaching prevailed, Martianus Capella. "I)e \uptiis Mercurii et philol- ogia?"; elsewhere, as in the schools taught by Alcuin, the teacher compiled treatises on grammar, etc. from the works of Cassiodorus, St. Isidore of Seville, and Venerable Bede. In some instances the works of Boet hius were used as texts in dialectic. The master. scholasticus or archischolus (earlier capiscola), had at his command, besides his assistants, a proscholus, or prefect of discipline, whose duty it was (in the mo- nastic school of Fulda. at least I to teach the children "how to walk, how to bow to strangers, how to be- have in the presence of superiors". The teacher read (legere was synonymous with docere) while the pupils took down his dictation in their wax-tablets. The "schoolroom" was, until as late as the twelfth cen- tury the cloister of the monastery and. in the case of some very popular teachers, the street or a public square. The floor of the schoolroom was strewn with straw on which the pupils sat — boarded floors and benches do not appear to have been in use in schools until the fifteenth century, although seats of a certain kind were provided at C'iuny, in the twelfth century, namely, wooden boxes which served the double pur- pose of a seat and a repository for writing materials. Discipline in the Carlovingian schools was main- tained by the proscholus, and that the medieval scholar dreaded t he rod is clear from an episode in the history of the school of St. Gall where, in order to es- cape a birching, the boys set fire to the monastery. Regulations regarding neatness, the hours to be given to work, and provision for the mid-day siesta, etc. show that some attention was paid to the health and comfort of the pupils. After the death of Charle- magne and the dismemberment of the empire, the educational reforms introduced by him received a set-back. There was a brief period under Charles the Bald, when royal favour was once more bestowed on scholars. But with the advent of the tenth century came other cares and occupations for tin- royal mind. Nevertheless, the monastic and episcopal schools, and no doubt the village schools too, continued wherever war and pillage did not render their existence impos- sible. Thus the educational influence of the Carlo- vingian revival of learning was continued in some way down to the dawn of the era of university educa- tion in the thirteenth century.

MuLLlNGER, Till Scl I n) <'!,,,, I,:, the Qreat (London, 1877);

Dbanb, Christian Schools and Scholars (London, 1S67), I, 161 sq.; Azaiuas. / tilto. IS96'. :i sq., 171

si | .; GASKOIN, Alr><<,, ll I ..niloii. HKI-ll; Nest,

Alcuin .1,1,1 il,, ii ..... ... /,... \, .-, \,„k, 1st).'.;

Ozanam, La civQiwtlion I Francs (Paris, 1894);

I ...I iKI I, 1. • .■...,.. I ,,pi\ ..|),|. ]S/.| ;

Mo.nmeh, Alcuin it ton influence Ittti Paris, 1855);

Wf.hnkk, Alcuin hunderi (Vienna, 1881). For

documents, cf Won Ger a, t., Tjeoo .1. 11; Kansi, Ampltirima CoUectio, etc.. XII; Miirm./ >../. - mstiaues

de rOcculcnl (Paris. L866); SpBi da Untcrrichtx-

wesens in Deutschland (Stuttgart, Iss:; . For an account of the educational activity <>f the Irish teachers in the Carlovingian revival, cf. Call,.- Bulletin 1 1907), XIII. 382, 682.

William Turner.

Carmel (Heb. tans, Kdrmd, "garden" or "garden- land"), designates in the I >. T. a certain city and its adjacent territory in the tribe of Juda. The city was in the hill country of Juda. and its territory was contiguous to that of Maon, Ziph, and Jota (cf. Josue, xii. 22; xv, 20, 55). It was in Carmel that Saul set up the trophy of his victory over Amalec [I Kings (A. V., I Samuel), xv, 12]. As Nabal, a man