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 CANTIGERN

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CANUTE

Cantigern. See Kentigern.

Cantius, John, St., See John Cantids, St.

Cantor, the chief singer (and sometimes instructor) of the ecclesiastical choir, called also precentor. His duties and qualifications have varied considerably according to time and place; but generally he must be ready to lead all the singing in church, to start any chant, and be watchful to prevent or correct mistakes of singers placed under him. He may be responsible for the immediate rendering of the music, showing the course of the melody by movements of the hand. The chief singer of the Gregorian Schola Cantorum was called Prior scholce or Primicerius. In medieval cathedrals the cantor was master of music and chant, but also commonly one of the dignitaries of the chapter. In the fourteenth century the cantor in many churches began to delegate his instruction of the singers to a master of music. After the introduc- tion of harmonized music some duties naturally fell to the conductor or choir-master, who might be a lay- man. The cantor's place in church is on the right of the choir, and immediately on his left stands his assist- ant, formerly called the "succentor". In ruling the choir the cantor very commonly carried a staff as the mark of his dignity. This custom still survives in some places.

Gerbert. De cantu el musica sacra (St Blasien, 1774) ; Baumer, Hisloire du Brrviaire (Paris, 190."); Mkks, Choirs and Choral Mu.-ic (London, 1901); Duchesne. Christian Worship (London, 1904); Wagner, History of Plain Chant (London, 1907).

Wilfrid G. A. Shebbeare.

Cantu, Cesare. Italian historian and poet, b. at Brivio, 8 December, 1S07; d. at Milan, 11 March, 1895. He was at first a student of theology, but. left the seminary without completing the course, not feeling himself called to the priesthood. After this he turned his attention to literature, and taught the Italian language and literature at Sondrio in 1823, at Como in 1827, and at Milan in 1832. While at Como Cantu wrotea tale in verse called "Algiso o la lega Lombarda " (1828), which at- tracted well- de- served attention; the "Storia della citta e della diocesi di Como " (2 vols., Milan. 1829- 1832) made him still bet- ter known. Shortly afterwards appeared "Ragionamenti sulla storia Lombarda nel secoloXVII "(Milan, 1S32), which was published later under the title "Commento storico ai Promessi Sposi di A. Man- zoni, o la Lombardia nel secolo XVII". In this work Cantu expressed liberal views in his comments on the Austrian policy, and was consequently con- demned to thirteen months' imprisonment. The miseries of the incarceration were described by him in the well-known historico-political novel. " Mar- gherita Pusterla" (Milan. 1838), a book widely read and frequently republished.

About this date Cantu began his most important work, the "Storia universale" (35 vols., Turin, 1837, and succeeding decades). The work was often re- printed, and has been translated into English, Ger- man, French, and Spanish. It is the first historical work by an Italian which, in a well-finished and

Cesare Canto

vigorous style, gives a philosophical treatment of the development of all civilized peoples from the remotest times to the pontificate of Pius IX. Cantu, it is true, did not draw directly from original sources, but depended on French and German authorities, the value of which he did not always judge with sufficient acumen. He worked up the material thus obtained, however, with entire independence. Yet he showed the influence of the Romantic school, of which Manzoni is the most important representative, and he sought to combine Church and State, politics and religion. The effect of the Romantic movement is still more evident, in those works in which Cantu treated the history of Italy of his own time, as in: "Storia dei cent' anni, 1750-1850" (5 vols., Florence, 1851); "Storia degli Italiani" (3 vols., Naples, 1856); and "Gli ultimi trenti anni" (3 vols., Turin, 1879). Constantly viewed with suspicion by the Government on account of his political opinions, he was obliged to make his escape from Milan to Piedmont when the Revolution of 1848 broke out, but he returned when the uprising came to an end. He was a mem- ber of Parliament from 1859 to 1S61, and from 1874 until the time of his death he was the director of the archives of Lombardy. In addition to the more important, publications mentioned above, Cantu wrote a large number of small historical works and numerous popular books and tales for the young, most of which passed through several editions, and were translated into other languages. Among these minor writings may be mentioned: "Letture gio- vanili", 4 vols.; " Boon senso e buon cuore": "II giovinetto dirizzato alia bonta"; "II galantuomo"; and many others. A complete edition of his poetry appeared at Florence in 1870.

Bertolini, Cantu r Ic sue opere (Florence, 1895); Mazzoni, Atti delV Accademia Mia Cru-sca (Florence, 1899).

Patriots Schlager.

Canute (or Cnut: the Great, the Mighty >. King of the English, Danes, and Norwegians, b. about 994; d. at Shaftesbury, 12 November, 1035. He was tin' son of Sweyn, King of Denmark, and Sigrid, widow of Eric of Sweden. Though baptized while a child. there is no evidence of Christianity in his life until after he ascended the English throne. He accom- panied his father on the invasion of England, and after the repulse at London and Sweyn's sudden death near Bury (3 February, 1014) was declared King of England by the Danish fleet. The witan, however, recalled .Ethelred, their "born lord", who had fled at Sweyn's approach, and Canute, unable to withstand the restored monarch, set sail for the North. At Sandwich, after cutting off the noses, ears, and hands of the hostages taken by his father, he put them ashore — a dire omen of a more terrible return. Re- turned to Denmark. Canute proclaimed himself king and set about gathering a powerful fleet. England, instead of being prepared for his return, was torn by internal dissensions, and when Canute appeared off the coast, with a fleet, said to have numbered two hun- dred sail, each boat containing eighty men. I deserted Eadmund Ironside and joined tin' Danish standard. Upon the death of -Ethelred. Eadmund was made king by the people of London, and. with all Wessex in submission. Canute laid siege to the city. This was the beginning of a series of bloody conflicts, interrupted only by pillage of the country-side, cul- minating at Assandun, where, after a battle which was waged all day and into the night, the English were routed, and '"'all the nobility of the English race was there destroyed" (Anglo-Saxon Chron.,ed. Giles. London, 1847, p. 409). Eadmund was still formid- able. Canute followed him into Gloucestershire and made terms of peace on the Isle of Olney. Mercia anil Xorthumbria were Canute's portion, and a tax known as the "danegeld" was levied on both armies to defray the expenses of the Danish fleet. Eadmund