Page:Catholic Encyclopedia, volume 3.djvu/156

 BYZANTINE

122

BYZANTINE

revealed the skill of the epigrammatist and the nature- lover's gift of affectionate observation.

Besides sacred poetry, hagiography flourished from the sixth to the eleventh century. This species of literature developed from the old martyrologies, and became the favourite form of popular literature. The most flourishing period extended from the eighth to the eleventh century, and was concerned principally with monastic life. Unfortunately, the rhetorical lan- guage was in violent contrast with the simple nature of the contents, so that the chief value of this litera- ture is historical.

More popular in style are the biographers of saints of the sixth and seventh centuries. The oldest ami most important of them is Cyril of Scythopolis (in Palestine), whose biographies of saints and monks are distinguished for the reliability of their facts and dates. Of great interest also for their contributions to the history of culture and of ethics, and for their genuinely popular language, are the writings of Leontius", Archbishop of Cyprus (seventh century), especially his life of the Patriarch John (surnamed The Merciful), Eleemosynarius of Alexandria. (Cf. Gelzer, Kleine Schriften, Leipzig, 1907.) This life describes for us a man who in spite of his peculiarities honestly tried "to realize a pure Biblical Christianity of self-sacrificing love", and whose life brings before us in a fascinating way the customs and ideas of the lower classes of the people of Alexandria. Still another popular work of Byzantine origin ranks among those that have won for themselves a place in universal literature; it is the romance of Barlaam and Joasaph (q. v.), the "Song of Songs" of Chris- tian asceticism, illustrated by the experience of the Indian prince Joasaph, who is led by the hermit Barlaam to abandon the joys of life, and as a true Christian to renounce the world. The material of the story is originally Indian, indeed Buddhistic, for the original of Joasaph was Buddha. The Greek version originated in the Sabbas monastery in Pales- tine about the middle of the seventh century. It did not circulate widely until the eleventh century, when it became known to all Western Europe through the medium of a Latin translation. [Cf. Conybeare, The Barlaam and Josaphat Legend, in Folk-Lore (1896), VII, 101 sqq.]

The ascetic conception of life was deeply imbedded in the Byzantine character, and was strengthened by the high development of monastic institutions. The latter in turn brought forth an abundant ascetic literature, though it shows little if any advance on the asceticism of the Fathers of the Church, especially that of its great exponent, St. Basil. Less exten- sively cultivated, but excelling in quality, are By- zantine mystical writings. The true founder of By- zantine mysticism was Maximus Confessor (seventh century), who first stripped it of its neo-Platonic character and harmonized it with orthodox doctrine. Later and more important representatives were Symeon and Nicetas Stethatos in the eleventh, and Nikolaos Kavasilas in the fourteenth, century. The Byzantine mystical writers- differ from those of Western Europe chiefly in their attitude to eccle- siastical ceremonial, to which they adhered implic- itly, siring in it not a tendency to replace the spirit- ual life of tlic church by external pomp, but rather a profound symbol of this life. Accordingly Symeon strictly observed the ceremonial rules of the church, regarding them, however, only as a means to the at- tainment of ethical perfection. Mis principal work (published only in Latin) is a collection of prose [liens and hymns on communion with Clod. He is akin to thr chief German mystics in his tendency tun. mis pantheism, of Symeon's equally distin- guished pupil, Nicetas Stethatos, we need only say that he cast off his teacher's pantheistic tendencies. The last great mystic, Kavasilas, Archbishop of

Saloniki, revived the teachings of Dionysius the pseudo-Areopagite, but in the plan of his principal work, "Life in Christ", exhibits a complete inde- pendence of all other works and is without a parallel in Byzantine asceticism.

V. Popular Poetry. — The capture of Constan- tinople by the Latins in the year 1204 released pop- ular literature from the aristocratic fetters of official Byzantium. The emotional and imaginative life long latent, awoke again in the Byzantine world; in response to new influences from the Roman West, the withered roots of popular literature showed signs of new life. They needed only assiduous care to put forth fresh shoots, being as deeply imbedded in popular consciousness as those of literary poetry. As the latter springs from the rationalistieo-classical atmosphere of the Hellenistic period, even so the popular poetry, or folk-song, is an outgrowth of the idyllic or romantic literature of the same period. The artificial literature had its prototypes in Lueian, Heliodorus, Achilles Tatius, and Nonnus; on the other hand, the popular literature of medieval Byzantium imitated Apollonius of Rhodes, Callimachus, Theocri- tus, and Musecus. The chief characteristic of folk-song throughout the Greek Middle Ages is its lyric note, which constantly finds expression in emotional turns. In Byzantine literature, on the other hand, the re- finement of erotic poetry was due to the influence of the love-poetry of chivalry introduced by Frank ish knights in the thirteenth century and later. These Westerners also brought with them in abundance ro- mantic and legendary materials that the Byzantines soon imitated ami adapted. Lastly, Italian influences led to a revival of the drama. The celebration of the achievements of Greek heroes in popular literature was the result of the conflicts which the Greeks sustained during the Middle Ages with the border nations to the east of the empire. There were, in addition, popular books relating the deeds of ancient heroes, which had long beeii^ current, and were widespread through the East; these revived heroic poetry, to which a deep romantic tinge w-as imparted. The result was a complete upheaval of popular ideals and a broaden- ing of the popular horizon, both to the East and West ; the oppressive power of ancient standards was grad- ually replaced by the beneficial influence of modern ideals.

There was, consequently, a complete reconstruc- tion of the literary types of Byzantium. Of all the varieties of aFtistic poetry there survived only the ro- mance, though this became more serious in its aims, and its province expanded. Of metrical forms there remained only the political (fifteen-syllable) verse. From these simple materials there sprang forth an abundance of new poetic types. Alongside of the narrative romance of heroism and love there sprang up popular love lyrics, and even the beginnings of the modern drama.

The only genuine heroic epic of the Byzantines is the "Digenis Akritas", a popular poetic crystalliza- tion of the conflicts between the Byzantine wardens of the inarches (aKpLrai) and the Saracens, in Eastern Asia. Minor, during the tenth and eleventh centuries. The nucleus of this epic goes back to the twelfth or thirteenth century, its final literary form to the fif- teenth. The original poems have suffered much in the final redaction from the mutilations of the schoolmen. An approximate idea of the original poem may be gathered from the numerous echoes of it extant in popular poetry. The existing versions exhibit a blending of several cycles, quite after the manner of the Homeric poems. Its principal subjects are love, adventures, battles, and a patriarchal, idyllic

enjoyment of life; it is a mixture of the Iliad and the Odyssey, the majority of the material being drawn from tl'ie latter, while the atmosphere is Christian.

With an intimate sympathy with Nature are com-